Tourette Syndrome: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Author: Angela Bogdanova · Published: October 12, 2026 · Editorial Policy
Research cluster: Tic Disorders, Tourette Syndrome & Repetitive Behaviors · Written by Artificial Sapiens
Tourette syndrome is a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental tic disorder defined by a history of multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic, with tics beginning before age 18 and persisting for more than one year since the first tic. Motor and vocal tics may appear at different times. Symptoms vary considerably in type, frequency, intensity, and impact. Many people experience mild tics; others encounter pain, interruption of daily activities, or difficulties caused by associated conditions and social responses. The CDC diagnostic criteria and European assessment guidelines provide the clinical framework.
Tourette syndrome is often abbreviated TS and is also called Tourette disorder. It belongs to a family of tic disorders and is characterized by an evolving course rather than a fixed set of movements or sounds. Its name does not specify severity, intelligence, personality, or life prospects. Diagnosis depends on a developmental history and clinical assessment; treatment decisions depend on impairment and the person's priorities. CDC overview | American Academy of Neurology guideline.
What Is Tourette Syndrome?
Tourette syndrome is a neurological and neurodevelopmental condition in which the brain repeatedly generates movements or vocalizations called tics. Tics are generally sudden, rapid, recurrent, and nonrhythmic. A person may experience a movement or sound as difficult to resist, preceded by a bodily urge, or occurring before any conscious awareness. The ability to delay some tics briefly is variable and does not make them a matter of choice. The central medical question is whether the history satisfies Tourette criteria and whether other explanations need consideration. ESSTS assessment guideline.
The diagnosis refers to a particular pattern across time. Someone with occasional eye blinking, throat clearing, or a single repetitive movement does not automatically have Tourette syndrome. Many children have tics for a limited period; these may be classified as provisional tic disorder if formal criteria are met. Persistent motor or vocal tic disorder describes a history limited to one tic modality. Tourette syndrome specifically requires a history of both multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic over the necessary duration. CDC classification.
How common is Tourette syndrome?
The CDC reports an estimate of approximately 1 in 162 children, or 0.6%, from studies designed to include diagnosed and undiagnosed cases. The proportion of children with a recorded diagnosis is lower. Differences in case ascertainment, age, sample, access to care, and diagnostic practices explain why estimates are not interchangeable. The CDC also reports that boys are diagnosed more often than girls in population studies; diagnostic and referral patterns are important when interpreting group differences. CDC data and statistics, reviewed 2026.
Symptoms: What Motor and Vocal Tics Look and Sound Like
The defining symptoms are motor tics, involving movement, and vocal or phonic tics, involving sound made by the respiratory or vocal apparatus. Both can be simple or complex. A tic may occur alone, in a brief series, or in changing sequences. Its presentation can be subtle enough to escape notice and can fluctuate over days, months, and years. A person's list of current tics may differ from their historical pattern. ESSTS assessment.
Simple motor tics
Common examples include repeated eye blinking, brief facial grimacing, nose wrinkling, head jerking, shoulder shrugging, or a quick movement of an arm. Simple motor tics generally involve one muscle group or a small number of muscles and are brief. Recurrent eye blinking can also occur because of dry eyes, irritation, or visual problems, so the movement alone establishes neither a tic disorder nor Tourette syndrome. CDC overview.
Complex motor tics
Complex motor tics involve coordinated-looking sequences, such as touching, bending, hopping, turning, or repeating a gesture. They can resemble a purposeful action even when the individual experiences them as driven by an urge or difficult to control. Context and the person's own account help distinguish these experiences from ordinary habits, stereotyped movements, and compulsions. Some people have tics that produce pain or injury; those presentations warrant evaluation of protective measures and treatment. ESSTS assessment | CDC treatment.
Simple vocal tics
A vocal tic need not involve spoken language. Throat clearing, sniffing, grunting, squeaking, short coughing sounds, and other brief noises may be phonic tics. Clinicians ask about allergies, respiratory irritation, and other explanations when the sound could have several causes. A vocal tic may emerge long after the first motor tics, which is why asking only about present-day symptoms can miss part of the diagnostic history. CDC diagnosis.
Complex vocal tics
Complex vocal tics may involve syllables, words, or phrases. Echolalia refers to repetition of another person's speech; palilalia refers to repetition of one's own words or sounds. Coprolalia refers to involuntary socially inappropriate or obscene expressions and occurs in a minority of people with Tourette syndrome. It is neither required for diagnosis nor a representative depiction of most cases. Because the meaning of an utterance may be socially sensitive, assessment must consider context and the individual's experience without assuming intent. NIH MedlinePlus | ESSTS assessment.
Premonitory urges and the experience of a tic
Many adolescents and adults report an uncomfortable sensation before a tic: pressure, tension, tingling, an itch-like feeling, or a sense that something must be completed. Performing the tic may temporarily relieve that sensation. Premonitory urges can be difficult for young children to describe, and some tics occur with little recognized warning. Their presence or absence alone is not diagnostic. Clinicians may assess urges as part of behavioral treatment planning, while recognizing substantial differences among individuals. ESSTS assessment | CDC behavioral treatment.
Why symptoms wax and wane
Tics often change in intensity, frequency, location, and complexity. Stress, excitement, tiredness, illness, certain settings, and concentration may alter their expression for some people. These short-term influences are best understood as factors that affect tic expression, rather than established causes of Tourette syndrome. A child may tic less in one environment and more in another; absence during a brief appointment does not erase a credible longitudinal history. ESSTS assessment.
Can people suppress Tourette tics?
Some people can postpone particular tics temporarily, sometimes with considerable concentration or discomfort. Others have little suppressibility, especially for some tic types or at some ages. Context-dependent suppression can affect observation: a student may hold back a tic during class yet experience it later. Behavioral intervention deliberately teaches strategies for selected tics, but success in treatment never proves that all tics should be voluntarily preventable. Demanding continuous suppression can increase distress and stigma. AAN guideline | CDC treatment.
Tourette Syndrome Diagnostic Criteria
In DSM-5-TR-based U.S. clinical practice, Tourette syndrome requires a history of two or more motor tics and one or more vocal tics, although the motor and vocal tics do not have to be simultaneous. The tics must have persisted for more than one year since the first tic onset, may wax and wane, and must begin before age 18. The disturbance cannot be attributable to a substance, medication, or another medical condition. A diagnosis is made through clinical assessment; a blood test, brain scan, video clip, or questionnaire score cannot independently confirm it. CDC diagnostic criteria.
The one-year requirement describes time elapsed since first onset, not an obligation for symptoms to appear with equal frequency every day. An individual can meet Tourette criteria even when a currently observed visit shows only motor tics, provided the history reliably documents qualifying vocal tics. Conversely, an isolated vocal or motor symptom is not sufficient. The diagnosis is not restricted to people with severe tics, nor does it require a specific impairment threshold in order to recognize the tic pattern. The practical need for treatment is considered separately. CDC diagnosis | AAN management recommendations.
Tourette syndrome versus provisional and persistent tic disorders
Provisional tic disorder describes qualifying motor tics, vocal tics, or both when less than one year has elapsed since first onset, with the applicable developmental and exclusion criteria. Persistent motor or vocal tic disorder describes motor tics alone or vocal tics alone for more than a year and excludes a historical diagnosis of Tourette syndrome. Tourette syndrome describes multiple motor and at least one vocal tic with a history extending beyond a year. These classifications are differentiated by symptom history and duration, not by a hierarchy of moral worth or a numerical tic severity score. CDC diagnostic table.
How a clinician evaluates possible Tourette syndrome
A clinical assessment generally establishes the first age of onset, exact motor and vocal phenomena across the years, duration, waxing and waning, premonitory sensations, ability to postpone or redirect particular tics, medicines and substances, medical history, family history, and functional consequences. Clinicians ask about school, social relationships, injuries, sleep, and emotional well-being, and assess co-occurring conditions. Examination and targeted investigations may be appropriate if the onset or movements suggest a different neurological or medical process. Standard MRI, EEG, or blood work are not routine confirmatory Tourette tests. ESSTS clinical assessment guideline | NIH overview.
Some clinicians use the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS) to quantify tic characteristics and their impact over time. Premonitory urge measures and broader psychiatric screening instruments can help organize information. These tools support clinical assessment and longitudinal monitoring; they are not stand-alone diagnostic tests, and a high or low score does not automatically establish or exclude Tourette syndrome. ESSTS assessment.
When further medical assessment is especially important
An abrupt, atypical presentation, a first apparent onset in adulthood, progressive neurological changes, altered awareness, prolonged episodes, new exposure to a medication associated with movements, or movements linked to injury deserve an individualized differential assessment. Episodes suggesting seizures or acute neurological illness call for more urgent medical attention. The appropriate workup depends on examination and context rather than a blanket list of tests for everyone with tics. ESSTS assessment | CDC sudden tic-like onset guidance.
What Causes Tourette Syndrome?
Tourette syndrome has a strong genetic component and a complex neurodevelopmental basis. Research implicates multiple common genetic variants and some rarer variants, with brain circuits involved in selecting, initiating, and inhibiting actions contributing to the clinical picture. Genetic susceptibility is probabilistic: a family history raises clinical suspicion, but relatives may be unaffected or may show different tic-related traits. No single gene, neurotransmitter level, or routine genetic test currently determines the diagnosis for an individual. Review of genetic architecture | Genome-wide study.
Brain circuits and neurotransmitters
Research frequently examines cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical networks, motor control, habit and action selection, and dopaminergic signaling. These are useful scientific models but do not offer a simple account such as too much dopamine or an identifiable lesion for every person. Brain imaging findings are predominantly group-level research observations and are not a diagnostic fingerprint. The scientific task is to explain why a developing neural system produces fluctuating tics under multiple interacting influences. Genetic and neurobiological review | ESSTS assessment.
Genes, family history, and environment
The hereditary contribution to Tourette syndrome is established, and research also studies prenatal, perinatal, immune, and environmental associations. Observational associations should not be presented as proof that a particular exposure caused a particular person's condition. Families should not be blamed for tics or asked to reconstruct a single triggering event. Stress, anxiety, excitement, and fatigue may modify tic expression without being sufficient explanations for the underlying disorder. CDC causes and risk factors | Genetic architecture review.
Infection and abrupt symptom onset
A subset of children presents with dramatic acute neuropsychiatric changes, sometimes raising clinical questions about PANS or PANDAS. These are specialized, debated diagnostic and mechanistic questions with distinct clinical assessment needs. Typical Tourette syndrome cannot be inferred to result from strep infection, and a positive throat culture by itself does not establish causation for tics. Rapid, unusual onset warrants a careful evaluation of the full presentation, rather than assuming one explanation. NIMH PANS/PANDAS guidance | CDC diagnosis.
How Tourette Syndrome Differs from Other Repetitive Behaviors
The differential diagnosis considers onset, pattern, rhythm, duration, urges, flexibility, accompanying thoughts, level of awareness, medication effects, and observed neurological signs. Some people can have Tourette syndrome and another repetitive-behavior condition at the same time. These categories are clinical tools for assessment, and no single movement feature reliably identifies the diagnosis across every person. ESSTS assessment guideline.
Tics and compulsions
Tics are recurrent movements or sounds often linked to a sensory urge. Compulsions in obsessive-compulsive disorder commonly occur in relation to obsessions, feared consequences, or rules the person feels driven to follow, although some presentations involve a just-right feeling and overlap phenomenologically with tics. The distinction may require careful attention to both movement and internal experience. Tourette syndrome and OCD can co-occur and require separate assessment. For the complete comparison, see the English Hub article OCD vs. Tourette Syndrome: Compulsions, Tics, and Urges. ESSTS assessment.
Tics, autistic stimming, and stereotypies
Stereotypies often involve more rhythmic or prolonged, patterned movements, may begin earlier, and can be associated with excitement, sensory regulation, or engagement. Stimming is a broad descriptive term for self-stimulatory or self-regulatory actions and appears across different populations, including autistic people. Neither a repeated movement nor an autism diagnosis determines that the movement is a tic. Individuals may have both. Observation of context, developmental history, subjective function, and phenomenology is needed. ESSTS assessment.
Tics and body-focused repetitive behaviors
Hair pulling, skin picking, and other body-focused repetitive behaviors involve their own assessment and treatment literature and may have habit, sensory, affective, and contextual components. They should not be relabeled as Tourette tics simply because they repeat. The English Hub's separate article OCD and Body-Focused Repetitive Behaviors addresses those conditions in detail. ESSTS assessment.
Functional tic-like behaviors
Functional tic-like behaviors can resemble tics, but some presentations differ in the pattern of onset, symptom repertoire, context, and course from typical childhood-onset Tourette syndrome. Rapid onset of numerous complex tic-like behaviors during adolescence may prompt this differential, yet demographic features or exposure to online videos are insufficient for diagnosis. Functional symptoms are real and may be involuntary; the term does not mean feigning or deliberate performance. Specialists make a positive, context-sensitive clinical assessment, sometimes identifying both longstanding neurodevelopmental tics and functional symptoms in the same individual. Specific functional-tic criteria have been proposed, while their prospective accuracy remains incompletely validated. ESSTS expert consensus | CDC discussion.
Tics and seizures or other movement disorders
Myoclonus, dystonia, chorea, medication-induced movements, stereotypies, and certain seizure presentations can enter the differential diagnosis. Altered awareness, atypical episodes, focal neurological findings, or a new medical exposure may change the investigation plan. A video can be useful as supplementary information when episodes are rare, but interpretation belongs within a clinical examination and history. ESSTS clinical assessment | NIH diagnostic overview.
Conditions That Commonly Co-occur with Tourette Syndrome
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), anxiety, learning difficulties, and other developmental or mental health concerns frequently coexist with Tourette syndrome. These are independently evaluated conditions, not automatic consequences of the Tourette diagnosis. In CDC survey data, a substantial majority of diagnosed U.S. children had at least one additional behavioral, developmental, or mental health condition. The burdens of co-occurring symptoms can exceed the impact of tics themselves. CDC data | AAN guideline.
ADHD and executive functioning
ADHD symptoms can involve persistent patterns of inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity that interfere with functioning. In a person with tics, time spent attempting to suppress movements may also affect concentration, so clinicians distinguish the sources of difficulty. Co-occurring ADHD can require its own behavioral, educational, and medication care. Management is individualized rather than assuming that all attention difficulties come from tics. CDC associated conditions | AAN guideline.
OCD, anxiety, mood, and autism
Obsessions, compulsions, anxiety symptoms, depression, and autistic traits or autism may coexist with Tourette syndrome. Specific diagnostic criteria are applied to each condition, and the shared presence of repetitive behavior does not collapse them into one diagnosis. Treating relevant co-occurring conditions may improve quality of life even when tic frequency changes little. For the OCD relationship, see OCD and Tic Disorders: What Is the Connection?. CDC treatment.
The Natural Course: Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood
Tourette syndrome typically begins in early childhood, often with motor tics around the face or head, and evolves over time. Tic severity commonly increases during childhood, reaches a peak around early adolescence, and becomes less prominent for many people later in adolescence and young adulthood. Some people have persistent, impactful symptoms in adulthood, and individual outcomes cannot be forecast reliably from one clinical visit. Longitudinal counseling should leave room for improvement as well as continuing support needs. AAN practice guideline | NIH MedlinePlus.
In adulthood, the clinical task includes revisiting historical symptoms, current tic burden, workplace functioning, mental health, and treatment preferences. First-ever tic-like symptoms emerging in adulthood warrant a more extensive differential assessment than the typical childhood-onset presentation. A childhood diagnosis remains relevant even if visible tics become rare for long periods. ESSTS assessment.
Does Tourette Syndrome Need Treatment?
Treatment is guided by the person's experience and functional impact. When tics are mild and do not cause discomfort, injury, significant distress, or meaningful interference, education and watchful waiting may be appropriate. Treatment may be considered when tics cause pain, interfere with writing, speaking, learning, work, social interaction, or safety, or when the person wants help managing them. Clinicians should reassess priorities as symptoms evolve and should address co-occurring conditions. The aim is improved functioning and quality of life, developed collaboratively. AAN practice guideline | CDC treatment.
Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention for Tics (CBIT)
CBIT is an evidence-based, structured behavioral intervention that typically combines psychoeducation, awareness training, competing-response practice rooted in habit reversal, and attention to environmental factors that influence tic expression. A therapist helps identify a particular tic and its early signals, then teaches an action that is physically incompatible with that tic and can be used at relevant times. The intervention is tailored to age, symptom presentation, priorities, and ability to practice. It aims to reduce tic impact without blaming the person for involuntary symptoms. CDC explanation of CBIT | ESSTS psychological guidelines.
Randomized trials in children and adults demonstrate clinically meaningful benefits on tic outcomes for many participants. Response varies, and access to appropriately trained clinicians can be a barrier. In the AAN guidance, CBIT may be offered as an initial option when available and when the patient is motivated to try it; it should be discussed alongside watchful waiting and medication, according to circumstances. Data from trials involving selected children or adults cannot automatically establish equivalent effectiveness in every age group or with every co-occurring presentation. Child randomized trial | Adult randomized trial | AAN guideline.
Habit reversal and tic-focused exposure and response prevention
Habit reversal training is a central component of CBIT. Tic-focused exposure and response prevention (ERP) is another specialized approach that works with tic urges and the capacity to refrain from responding to them. The ESSTS psychological guideline identifies the strongest evidence for habit reversal/CBIT, with evidence supporting tic-focused ERP at a lower degree of certainty due to a smaller study base. Tic-focused ERP should also be distinguished from ERP used to treat OCD because target symptoms and intervention goals differ. ESSTS psychological interventions.
Medication for tics
Medication is considered when tic-related burden warrants treatment and the anticipated benefit justifies possible harm. Antipsychotic medications such as aripiprazole or risperidone may reduce tic severity, but choices vary by indication and national approval, and adverse effects can include sedation, restlessness, movement effects, weight gain, and metabolic changes. Clinicians monitor relevant risks and adjust treatment over time. Medication does not cure Tourette syndrome, and it should not be presented as producing complete tic elimination. AAN treatment guideline | ESSTS pharmacological guideline.
Alpha-2 adrenergic agonists such as clonidine or guanfacine are sometimes considered, particularly where ADHD co-occurs. The balance between tic and attention benefits, sleepiness, blood pressure effects, and other adverse events must be evaluated, and certain medicines require appropriate tapering rather than abrupt stopping. Other options, including topiramate or targeted botulinum toxin injections for selected focal severe tics, appear in specialist guidelines with narrower indications and different evidence certainty. A specific drug or dose cannot be chosen responsibly from a symptom list online. AAN guideline | ESSTS pharmacological guidance.
Deep brain stimulation and advanced care
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an invasive intervention considered only in exceptionally severe, persistent, treatment-refractory cases after specialized multidisciplinary evaluation. Evidence, potential benefits, risks, appropriate patient selection, and long-term outcomes require careful individualized discussion. It is not a routine therapy for childhood tics or a substitute for established first-line approaches. AAN recommendations on DBS.
What remains preliminary?
Research continues into online delivery of tic therapies, novel drug targets, neurostimulation, biomarkers, and personalized predictions of outcome. Some delivery formats have promising evidence, while availability, comparative effectiveness, and long-term outcomes remain uneven. Supplements, dietary restrictions, and other widely promoted approaches should be evaluated according to clinical evidence and safety rather than presented as established cures. Clinical trials and emerging mechanistic hypotheses have different evidentiary status from professional guideline recommendations. ESSTS psychological treatment review | AAN practice guideline.
Living With Tourette Syndrome
The everyday effects of Tourette syndrome reflect tics, co-occurring conditions, environmental demands, and how other people respond. People may need to explain noises or gestures, cope with discomfort, plan rest breaks, or negotiate privacy and dignity in public situations. The level of support needed changes across settings and life stages. A useful support plan focuses on actual barriers and the person's own goals rather than attempting to eliminate every visible difference. CDC education guidance | AAN guideline.
School accommodations and bullying prevention
In school, students may benefit from flexible seating, permission to take breaks, alternative written-response methods, extended test time when indicated, access to a quiet space, or staff education about tics. In the United States, a student's eligibility for an IEP or Section 504 accommodations depends on individual needs and legal criteria. Teachers should avoid interpreting involuntary tics as deliberate disruption and should address bullying directly. Plans work best when developed with the student, caregivers, school staff, and relevant clinicians. CDC educator resources.
Family, peers, and employment
Family members and colleagues can help by asking which responses the person prefers: ignoring a nonharmful tic, making specific adjustments, or responding when pain or interference occurs. Persistent correction, ridicule, and pressure to suppress every symptom can undermine comfort and participation. Adults may choose whether and how to disclose a diagnosis at work and request accommodations when needed. Support must be responsive to actual functioning and privacy preferences, not stereotypes about Tourette syndrome. AAN psychoeducation recommendation | CDC school guidance.
Practical care planning
A useful conversation with a clinician can cover which particular tics hurt or interfere, when they are most disruptive, the history of motor and vocal tics, co-occurring attention or obsessive-compulsive symptoms, previous treatments, and the desired outcome of care. If a symptom is painful or injurious, safeguarding and injury prevention become immediate priorities. Families and adults can seek clinicians with relevant expertise in pediatric neurology, movement disorders, psychiatry, psychology, and specialized behavioral tic treatment as appropriate. ESSTS assessment | CDC care overview.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is Tourette syndrome a mental illness or a neurological condition?
Tourette syndrome is classified among neurodevelopmental tic disorders and is described by major health agencies as a condition involving the nervous system. Assessment and treatment often involve neurology, psychiatry, psychology, and developmental care because tic symptoms and co-occurring conditions cross professional boundaries. A psychiatric or psychological service can provide evidence-based help without making the tics imaginary or chosen. CDC overview.
Does everyone with Tourette syndrome swear involuntarily?
No. Coprolalia occurs in a minority of people with Tourette syndrome. Most experience other motor or vocal tics, often including simple movements and sounds. The familiar stereotype of involuntary swearing is therefore a poor guide to recognizing or understanding the disorder. NIH MedlinePlus.
Can Tourette syndrome go away?
For many people, tics become less pronounced from adolescence into adulthood, and some experience long periods with very few symptoms. Others continue to have tics or associated difficulties. The course cannot be predicted with certainty for an individual child; ongoing support can be adjusted as needs change. AAN natural-history counseling.
Can anxiety or stress cause Tourette syndrome?
Stress and anxiety may affect the expression or perceived intensity of tics. Tourette syndrome is a neurodevelopmental condition with a strong genetic contribution, so short-term stress is not an adequate explanation for its origin. Anxiety may also coexist as an independently important concern deserving evaluation. CDC about Tourette syndrome | Genetics review.
Can a person have Tourette syndrome without making sounds right now?
Yes. A credible history of one or more vocal tics is relevant even when none is observed at the visit. Tourette syndrome requires a history of both motor and vocal tics over time, not simultaneous display during an appointment. CDC diagnosis.
Can a person have Tourette syndrome and ADHD, OCD, or autism together?
Yes. These conditions can coexist, and each requires its own clinical evaluation. Shared repetitive or attention-related behaviors should be understood in context, with an individualized plan addressing the symptoms that create the greatest impact. CDC co-occurrence data | ESSTS assessment.
What age can Tourette syndrome be diagnosed?
The diagnosis requires tic onset before age 18 and more than one year since the first tic. Because these criteria depend on passage of time and symptom history, a child with newly developed tics may receive a provisional tic disorder diagnosis before a longer-term category can be established. Clinical review can still be helpful immediately if symptoms are painful, unusual, or disruptive. CDC diagnostic criteria.
Is Tourette syndrome diagnosed with an MRI or a blood test?
No routine imaging or laboratory test confirms Tourette syndrome. A clinician generally makes the diagnosis from the symptom and developmental history. Targeted tests are reserved for circumstances that suggest other possible conditions. NIH diagnostic overview.
What is the best treatment for Tourette syndrome?
The appropriate treatment depends on tic-related impairment, the person's age and preferences, access to trained specialists, co-occurring conditions, and the balance of benefit and risk. Education and monitoring can be sufficient for mild tics; CBIT is a well-supported behavioral option; medication is considered when needed, with careful monitoring. AAN guideline | CDC treatment.
Are sudden new tic-like behaviors in a teenager always Tourette syndrome?
No. Rapid-onset tic-like symptoms warrant assessment for several explanations, including functional tic-like behaviors, other movement disorders, and relevant medical or psychological factors. Functional symptoms can be involuntary and clinically significant. Evaluation should be individualized rather than relying on a video, social media history, or demographic stereotype. ESSTS functional tic-like consensus | CDC diagnosis.
Related Articles
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