Sleep Apnea: Symptoms, Testing, and Treatment Options
Author: Angela Bogdanova · Published: October 10, 2026 · Editorial Policy
Research cluster: Sleep, Insomnia & Circadian Psychology · Written by Artificial Sapiens
Sleep apnea is a sleep-related breathing disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops or becomes substantially reduced during sleep. Its most familiar signs are loud snoring, witnessed pauses in breathing, and waking with a gasp. Yet some people chiefly notice headaches, fatigue, unrefreshing sleep, difficulty concentrating, or repeated awakenings. These symptoms deserve assessment because obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), the most common form, is a treatable medical condition with consequences for daytime functioning and longer-term health. NIH/NHLBI
The practical pathway is straightforward: recognize a pattern that warrants evaluation; discuss symptoms, medical history, and risks with a clinician; complete the appropriate sleep study; and choose treatment according to the type and severity of sleep apnea, associated conditions, and individual preferences. A questionnaire, smartwatch, recording of snoring, or one overnight oxygen reading cannot establish or rule out the diagnosis. The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) diagnostic guideline requires physiological testing in the appropriate clinical context.
What is sleep apnea?
Breathing normally continues automatically throughout sleep. In sleep apnea, breathing may stop (an apnea) or airflow may decrease enough to produce a clinically scored hypopnea. These events can repeatedly fragment sleep and, in some cases, reduce blood oxygen levels. A person may remember none of the events. Consequently, feeling as if one slept all night does not necessarily imply uninterrupted breathing.
Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the upper airway repeatedly narrows or collapses during sleep despite continued attempts to breathe. The anatomy and behavior of the throat, tongue, jaw, soft palate, and surrounding tissues influence airway stability. Central sleep apnea (CSA) occurs when respiratory control signals intermittently fail to produce an adequate effort to breathe. Some patients have combinations of obstructive and central events, and central events may appear during positive airway pressure treatment. The distinction matters because treatment approaches differ. NHLBI: causes and risk factors; AASM central sleep apnea guideline, 2025.
Snoring is a sound associated with vibration in the upper airway. It may occur with sleep apnea, but snoring by itself is not a diagnosis. Conversely, some people with clinically important sleep apnea do not report habitual loud snoring.
Symptoms: what does sleep apnea feel and look like?
Symptoms noticed by a bed partner
A partner or family member may describe loud habitual snoring, silence followed by snorting or gasping, repeated breathing pauses, irregular breathing, restless sleep, or sudden awakenings. The person affected may be unaware of all these signs. Witnessed breathing interruptions deserve assessment even if there is little subjective daytime sleepiness.
Symptoms noticed during the day
Daytime effects include excessive sleepiness, unrefreshing sleep, fatigue, reduced concentration, slower responses, memory complaints, irritability, and diminished quality of life. Morning headaches and dry mouth may occur. Some people wake repeatedly to urinate or report reduced sexual functioning. The NHLBI symptom overview describes these patterns and emphasizes their variability.
Sleepiness and fatigue are related but different. Sleepiness means increased propensity to fall asleep; fatigue may mean exhaustion or low energy without dozing. Sleep apnea can produce either experience, and neither symptom is specific to sleep apnea.
Sleep apnea can look like insomnia
A person may complain primarily of fragmented sleep, waking suddenly, difficulty returning to sleep, or unrefreshing nights. Insomnia disorder and OSA can also coexist. When the history suggests breathing-related awakenings, diagnosing only insomnia risks missing a contributing breathing disorder. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) may remain relevant to coexisting chronic insomnia, while airway-related events require their own evaluation and management.
Women, pregnancy, and menopause
Women may more often describe tiredness, insomnia, headaches, or mood-related complaints rather than a classic story of loud snoring and obvious witnessed apneas. Symptoms can therefore be missed when screening relies too heavily on one stereotypical presentation. Pregnancy and the period after menopause may change risk, and care should take reproductive and cardiovascular circumstances into account. NHLBI: sleep apnea and women.
Children have a different presentation
Children may snore or breathe through the mouth, but daytime presentation can include hyperactivity, behavioral changes, poor attention at school, bedwetting, or other difficulties. Pediatric diagnostic criteria and treatment decisions differ from those used for adults. A child with suspected apnea needs pediatric evaluation rather than interpretation of an adult screening score. NHLBI: sleep apnea in children.
What causes sleep apnea, and who is at greater risk?
OSA reflects the interaction of airway anatomy, sleep-dependent muscle control, respiratory physiology, and other biological factors. Risk rises with advancing age, certain craniofacial and airway features, family history, and excess body weight, although people across the weight spectrum can develop it. Alcohol may worsen upper-airway collapse; smoking is also associated with higher risk. Nasal obstruction, enlarged tonsils, and some jaw or tongue structures may contribute. An individual's body size alone is an inadequate way to diagnose or dismiss the condition. NHLBI: causes.
CSA has a different risk profile, including certain forms of heart failure, neurological disease, stroke history, exposure to high altitude, and opioid medications. Clinicians also consider sleep-related hypoventilation and other conditions that can resemble apnea. Because the mechanism differs, an OSA treatment pathway should not simply be applied to every central breathing abnormality. The 2025 AASM CSA guideline emphasizes treatment tailored to underlying etiology and patient-centered outcomes.
Why it matters: medical and psychological consequences
The most immediate risk may be impaired alertness. Severe sleepiness can affect driving, occupational safety, judgment, and everyday tasks. If you have difficulty staying awake while driving, stop driving and seek prompt medical assessment; do not treat a caffeine drink or a sleep-tracker score as a safety clearance.
OSA is associated in observational research with hypertension, cardiovascular disease, stroke, metabolic disorders, and impaired functioning. Repeated intermittent hypoxemia, autonomic activation, sleep fragmentation, and other processes are biologically plausible contributors. Associations do not mean that every health problem in a person with OSA was caused by apnea, and treatment trials do not show a uniform reduction in all major cardiovascular outcomes. A prospective-cohort meta-analysis documents cardiovascular associations, while the large SAVE randomized trial did not demonstrate fewer major cardiovascular events from CPAP in its studied population during follow-up, despite improvement in some symptoms and quality-of-life outcomes. Different patients, outcomes, and actual treatment use matter.
The clearest established clinical benefits of positive airway pressure are reduction of obstructive breathing events and improvement in excessive daytime sleepiness for appropriately selected adults. Health-risk counseling should therefore be accurate about both meaningful benefits and remaining uncertainties. AASM PAP treatment guideline.
When should you seek medical evaluation?
Arrange a clinical appointment if a partner observes breathing pauses, or if habitual snoring occurs alongside gasping, daytime sleepiness, unrefreshing sleep, headaches, or frequent nighttime awakenings. Assessment is especially important if symptoms affect driving, work, or safety; if you have difficult-to-control hypertension or relevant cardiovascular conditions; or if opioid use or known cardiac or neurological disease raises concern for central apnea.
Seek immediate emergency care for acute severe shortness of breath, chest pain, new neurological symptoms, or an episode in which someone cannot be awakened or is not breathing normally. A suspected sleep disorder is not a reason to postpone emergency evaluation of an acute medical event.
How sleep apnea is diagnosed
Step 1: Clinical history and assessment
A clinician asks about snoring, witnessed pauses, awakenings, daytime symptoms, sleep schedule, medications, alcohol, medical conditions, family history, and safety concerns. An examination may assess blood pressure, neck or airway characteristics, and signs of related medical conditions. Sometimes the history of a bed partner is particularly informative.
Questionnaires such as STOP-Bang and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale can describe risk or sleepiness and support referral decisions. They are screening or symptom-assessment tools, not diagnostic tests. A low score cannot reliably exclude apnea in a person with convincing symptoms, and a high score does not confirm it. The AASM diagnostic guideline specifically advises against diagnosing OSA from questionnaires or prediction algorithms alone.
Step 2: Select the right sleep test
In-laboratory polysomnography (PSG) records several physiological signals during sleep, typically including brain activity, eye movements, muscle activity, breathing, respiratory effort, oxygenation, and heart rhythm. It allows a clinician to evaluate sleep stages as well as respiratory abnormalities and possible alternative sleep disorders.
A medically ordered home sleep apnea test (HSAT) is appropriate for certain uncomplicated adults who have symptoms suggesting an increased risk of moderate-to-severe OSA. It is easier to perform outside a sleep laboratory but measures fewer signals and generally cannot evaluate the full range of sleep conditions. It is not simply a home diagnostic kit for everyone who snores. AASM diagnostic testing guideline; AASM home-testing position statement.
The AASM recommends PSG rather than routine HSAT in patients with significant cardiorespiratory disease, possible respiratory muscle weakness, suspected sleep-related hypoventilation, chronic opioid medication use, a history of stroke, or severe insomnia. If a technically adequate home test is negative or inconclusive while suspicion remains, laboratory PSG is recommended. Testing needs professional interpretation and follow-up.
Step 3: Understand AHI, REI, and severity
A sleep report often gives an apnea-hypopnea index (AHI): the average number of scored apneas and hypopneas per hour of sleep. Common adult severity bands are mild at 5–14.9 events per hour, moderate at 15–29.9, and severe at 30 or more. Formal diagnostic interpretation also incorporates symptoms, associated medical conditions, scoring methods, and clinical context. Some studies report a respiratory disturbance index (RDI), which may also include respiratory-effort-related arousals, and many home tests report a respiratory event index (REI) based on monitoring time rather than measured sleep time.
Because a home test often cannot identify exactly when a person was asleep, the reported index can differ from laboratory AHI and may underestimate event frequency in some situations. AHI also does not fully describe symptom burden, hypoxemia, arousals, or cardiovascular risk. A low number does not automatically invalidate significant symptoms, and a high number does not tell the whole story of the individual. AASM diagnostic testing guideline; AASM arousal-based scoring position.
Can a smartwatch, phone app, or oxygen monitor diagnose sleep apnea?
Consumer devices may flag irregular breathing, desaturation, or snoring, but their algorithms, signal quality, and validation vary. Their outputs cannot replace a medically appropriate PSG or HSAT. Normal-looking watch results do not exclude a disorder, and an alert should lead to clinical discussion rather than self-prescribed treatment. Likewise, a pulse oximeter alone cannot distinguish the full set of causes of abnormal breathing or sleepiness.
Treatment options for obstructive sleep apnea
Treatment selection depends on severity, symptoms, coexisting illness, anatomy, practical preferences, and response to previous therapy. A clinician and patient should decide how to address both respiratory events and the outcomes that matter to the patient, then check whether treatment works. Several approaches may be combined.
CPAP and other positive airway pressure devices
Positive airway pressure (PAP) uses a mask and a device to keep the airway open during sleep. CPAP supplies fixed continuous pressure, while APAP adjusts pressure within a prescribed range. Bilevel PAP delivers different inspiratory and expiratory pressures and is selected in particular circumstances rather than routinely replacing CPAP for uncomplicated OSA.
For adults with OSA and excessive daytime sleepiness, the AASM strongly recommends PAP compared with no therapy. The guideline also supports clinician-directed initiation with home APAP or laboratory titration in appropriate uncomplicated adults; CPAP and APAP are both accepted ongoing options. AASM 2019 PAP guideline.
Effective PAP care involves more than receiving a machine. Mask fit, air leaks, nasal congestion, dryness, pressure discomfort, anxiety or claustrophobia, and the practical reality of sleeping with equipment can affect use. Early education, comfort troubleshooting, suitable mask changes, humidification where needed, and ongoing follow-up help patients adapt. Device reports may show use, leaks, and residual respiratory events, but interpretation should consider symptoms and clinical data rather than a single app number.
Custom oral appliances
A custom, adjustable mandibular advancement device fitted and monitored by a qualified dentist can help some adults with OSA, particularly those who prefer an alternative or cannot tolerate CPAP. Such devices reposition the lower jaw to improve upper-airway patency. They require assessment of dental status and monitoring for jaw discomfort or changes in bite; the sleep clinician should also arrange follow-up sleep testing to verify effectiveness. Off-the-shelf mouthpieces and general anti-snoring gadgets should not be assumed equivalent. AASM/AADSM oral-appliance guideline.
Weight management and behavior-related measures
For people with excess weight, sustained weight reduction may lessen OSA severity and support overall health, but anatomy and other mechanisms mean that some people continue to have apnea despite major weight loss. Exercise, smoking cessation, limiting alcohol—especially near bedtime—and side sleeping when apnea is positional may contribute to care. These strategies should complement rather than automatically replace effective therapy for clinically significant OSA. NHLBI treatment overview.
Body position can matter: in some people obstructive events occur substantially more often when sleeping on the back. A clinician may recommend positional therapy after identifying this pattern. Whether it adequately controls the disorder should be objectively assessed.
Medication for selected adults with OSA and obesity
In December 2024, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved tirzepatide (Zepbound) for adults with obesity and moderate-to-severe OSA, together with a reduced-calorie diet and increased physical activity. This applies to a specific eligible population, not everyone with snoring or apnea. The pivotal SURMOUNT-OSA randomized trials showed reductions in AHI and weight over 52 weeks relative to placebo in adults with obesity and moderate-to-severe OSA. FDA approval announcement.
Whether this medication is appropriate requires a prescriber's assessment of contraindications, adverse effects, other health conditions, alternative treatments, affordability, and long-term follow-up. It should not be started, stopped, or substituted for PAP on the basis of an online article. Improvement in study measurements does not mean that every patient can discontinue airway therapy; treatment decisions need reassessment.
Surgery and implanted stimulation devices
Selected adults may benefit from upper-airway procedures, particularly when there is a relevant anatomical target or PAP cannot be accepted or tolerated. The AASM recommends discussing surgical referral in specified adults who cannot use PAP and discussing bariatric surgery in certain patients with severe obesity who are similarly unable to use PAP. A referral is a conversation about options and suitability, not a guarantee of benefit. AASM surgical referral guideline.
Hypoglossal nerve stimulation is an implant-based option for carefully selected patients with OSA. Evidence from a randomized clinical trial supports benefit in selected groups, while procedural risks, eligibility criteria, anatomical assessment, and follow-up remain important. Choice among surgery, an oral appliance, PAP, and weight-directed treatment is individualized.
What about central sleep apnea?
Central sleep apnea deserves separate clinical reasoning. The clinician first considers causes such as heart failure, neurological disease, altitude, and medication effects and then determines the most suitable management strategy. Treatments may include specific PAP modes, oxygen in particular circumstances, medication in selected cases, or phrenic nerve stimulation, depending on the cause and clinical profile. Some modes can be inappropriate for certain cardiac conditions. The current AASM 2025 treatment guideline makes conditional recommendations across distinct CSA etiologies and emphasizes clinical judgment. No general online CPAP-setting or oxygen-dosing instructions can substitute for this evaluation.
How to know whether treatment is working
Successful care considers several dimensions. A reduction in respiratory events matters, but so do improved alertness, refreshment, quality of life, tolerance, functional performance, and the person's health priorities. Clinicians may review PAP device data, mask leak and use patterns, relevant symptoms, blood pressure, coexisting conditions, and repeat sleep testing when appropriate. Different treatments have different follow-up needs; oral appliances require objective verification and dental monitoring.
If symptoms persist despite apparent PAP use, reassess mask problems, inadequate pressure, residual respiratory events, short sleep opportunity, circadian factors, coexisting insomnia, sedating medications, depression, restless legs syndrome, narcolepsy, and other medical causes of sleepiness. Persistent fatigue does not by itself demonstrate that PAP has failed. Likewise, a favorable device score does not prove that all daytime difficulties must have resolved.
Common problems and how clinicians address them
“I cannot tolerate CPAP.”
This is a frequent clinical problem and a reason to seek troubleshooting. Mask size and design, nasal symptoms, air leaks, dryness, pressure-related discomfort, and anxiety can sometimes be addressed without abandoning effective treatment. Involving the treating team early is often more productive than silently discontinuing use. If problems persist, evaluate another PAP configuration or an alternative treatment suited to the person's diagnosis. AASM PAP guideline.
“I still feel exhausted.”
Review treatment efficacy and actual sleep time, along with other sleep disorders, medical conditions, mood symptoms, and medications. Daytime exhaustion may have several contributors. A sleep specialist can decide whether residual sleepiness needs further testing or management rather than assuming one cause.
“My home test was negative, but I still wake up gasping.”
A negative HSAT does not always settle the question. If clinical suspicion remains high, the AASM recommends laboratory polysomnography. The clinician may also evaluate other causes of nocturnal gasping or awakenings, such as asthma, reflux, panic episodes, heart or lung conditions, and other sleep-related breathing disturbances. AASM diagnostic guideline.
“I have apnea but hardly ever feel sleepy.”
Symptoms vary, and significant respiratory abnormalities can exist without obvious daytime sleepiness. Treatment discussions should examine disease severity, associated conditions, goals, patient preferences, and the limits of available outcome evidence rather than relying on sleepiness alone.
Sleep apnea compared with related problems
Primary snoring is airway sound without diagnostic evidence of OSA; it still may be disruptive and sometimes merits assessment. Insomnia is difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep with associated distress or impairment; it can coexist with apnea. Insufficient sleep means the person regularly obtains too little sleep opportunity, which can itself cause sleepiness. Circadian rhythm disorders involve misalignment of desired sleep timing with the biological sleep-wake schedule. Narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia can produce pronounced sleepiness through different mechanisms. Nocturnal panic, reflux, and some heart or lung conditions may produce awakenings or breathing distress. A comprehensive history and appropriate tests clarify these distinctions.
For broader sleep foundations, see Sleep Psychology: How Sleep Works and Why It Matters and Sleep Deprivation: Symptoms, Cognitive Effects, and Recovery. These topics can coexist with sleep apnea but answer different clinical and behavioral questions.
Practical preparation for a sleep-medicine appointment
Before the appointment, write down the main concern and how long it has been present; bedtime and wake time on typical days; episodes of gasping, loud snoring, or observed pauses; daytime sleepiness and any driving concerns; relevant medical conditions; and prescribed or over-the-counter medications. If appropriate, ask a bed partner to describe what they have observed. Bring any previous sleep-study results or PAP records. A diary is useful for explaining patterns but is not a substitute for testing.
Useful questions include: Which type of apnea is suspected? Is an in-lab study preferable to home testing in my case? What does my AHI or REI mean alongside my symptoms and oxygen measurements? What treatment outcomes should we monitor? What are appropriate alternatives if the first treatment is difficult? When should testing be repeated? What precautions are needed for my job, driving, or planned surgery?
Frequently asked questions
Is sleep apnea always accompanied by loud snoring?
No. Loud snoring raises suspicion, especially when combined with witnessed pauses or gasping, but snoring can occur without OSA and OSA can present without a prominent snoring complaint. Symptoms and medical context guide the need for a sleep study.
Can you have sleep apnea if you are young or have a lower body weight?
Yes. Age and excess weight affect probability, but airway anatomy and other mechanisms allow OSA to occur in people who do not fit the most familiar risk profile. Clinical symptoms should be assessed on their merits.
Can sleep apnea cause anxiety, depression, or concentration problems?
Poor sleep and repeated breathing disturbances may contribute to fatigue, mood symptoms, and cognitive complaints. These experiences have multiple potential causes, and their coexistence with apnea does not prove one caused the other. Comprehensive care addresses each clinically relevant condition rather than assuming one diagnosis explains everything.
Is a home sleep apnea test accurate enough?
It can be suitable in selected uncomplicated adults with substantial clinical suspicion of moderate-to-severe OSA. It is not appropriate for every patient, and an inconclusive or negative result may need follow-up polysomnography. Choice of test depends on the patient's history and the disorders being considered. AASM testing guideline.
Does a normal oxygen reading rule out sleep apnea?
No. Oxygen values alone omit information about sleep, breathing effort, arousals, and event patterns. Consumer devices are not substitutes for a medically interpreted sleep study.
Can sleep apnea be cured?
Some individuals improve substantially after weight changes, surgery, or other targeted therapy, but durable outcomes vary. Continuous positive airway pressure usually controls obstructive events while it is used rather than permanently removing an underlying predisposition. Decisions about reducing or stopping therapy require professional reassessment.
Do I need CPAP for mild sleep apnea?
Treatment is individualized. Symptoms, health conditions, objective findings, preference, and response to alternatives all matter. For some adults, oral appliances, positional strategies, or other measures may be considered, with adequate follow-up. A diagnosis alone does not specify one universal treatment for every mild case.
Is it safe to stop CPAP after weight loss or medication treatment?
A substantial improvement in body weight or symptoms does not reliably establish that apnea has disappeared. Discuss repeat assessment and treatment changes with the treating clinician before discontinuing prescribed therapy.
Does CPAP prevent heart attacks and strokes?
PAP is effective at controlling OSA events and has demonstrated symptomatic benefits, particularly for excessive sleepiness. Its effect on major cardiovascular events in broad trial populations is more complex. The SAVE trial did not find a reduction in the primary cardiovascular outcome with CPAP in the population studied. Clinicians should manage hypertension and other cardiovascular risks according to their own evidence-based care pathways.
When is sleep apnea an emergency?
The chronic suspicion of sleep apnea typically prompts scheduled medical assessment, with urgency based on severity and safety. Acute chest pain, severe trouble breathing, new stroke-like symptoms, or inability to wake someone requires emergency services. Dangerous sleepiness while driving requires stopping the vehicle and obtaining medical advice.
Key clinical takeaway
Sleep apnea is identified through a pattern of symptoms and risks followed by appropriate sleep testing and clinical interpretation. Obstructive apnea, central apnea, insomnia, and other causes of fatigue require different reasoning. Effective management is individualized, usually involves follow-up, and aims to improve breathing during sleep alongside the person's daytime function and broader health. If witnessed breathing pauses, gasping, or substantial sleepiness are present, arrange professional evaluation rather than relying on wearable scores or self-treatment.
Related Articles
Sleep Psychology: How Sleep Works and Why It Matters — sleep architecture, regulation, and the distinction between sleeping and restorative sleep.
Sleep Deprivation: Symptoms, Cognitive Effects, and Recovery — what too little sleep does to alertness and cognition, including symptoms that may overlap with apnea.
Sleep Stages: REM, NREM, and the Sleep Cycle — the sleep stages measured by polysomnography and the structure of normal sleep.
References
American Academy of Sleep Medicine. (2025). Polysomnography for obstructive sleep apnea should include arousal-based scoring: A position statement. Official statement.
Badr, M. S., et al. (2025). Treatment of central sleep apnea in adults: An American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 21, 2181–2191. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.11858.
Craciun, M.-L., et al. (2025). Association between obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Medicina. PubMed.
Kapur, V. K., et al. (2017). Clinical practice guideline for diagnostic testing for adult obstructive sleep apnea. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 13, 479–504. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.6506.
Malhotra, A., et al. (2024). Tirzepatide for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea and obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 391, 1193–1205. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2404881.
McEvoy, R. D., et al. (2016). CPAP for prevention of cardiovascular events in obstructive sleep apnea. New England Journal of Medicine, 375, 919–931. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1606599.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2025a). Sleep apnea: Causes and risk factors. NIH.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2025b). Sleep apnea: Symptoms. NIH.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2025c). Sleep apnea: Diagnosis. NIH.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2025d). Sleep apnea: Treatment. NIH.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2025e). Sleep apnea and women. NIH.
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (n.d.). Sleep apnea in children. NIH.
Patil, S. P., et al. (2019). Treatment of adult obstructive sleep apnea with positive airway pressure: An American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 15, 335–343. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.7640.
Ramar, K., et al. (2015). Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea and snoring with oral appliance therapy. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 11, 773–827. https://doi.org/10.5664/jcsm.4858.
Schwartz, A. R., et al. (2023). Targeted hypoglossal nerve stimulation for patients with obstructive sleep apnea: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery, 149, 512–520. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2023.0161.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2024). FDA approves first medication for obstructive sleep apnea. FDA.