OCD vs OCPD: What Is the Difference? Obsessions, Personality Traits, Insight, and Treatment

OCD and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) can look similar from the outside, but they are different clinical conditions. OCD is defined by obsessions, compulsions, or both: intrusive thoughts, urges, or images and repetitive behaviors or mental acts that become difficult to resist and can consume time or impair daily life. OCPD is an enduring personality pattern organized around excessive perfectionism, orderliness, control, rigidity, and rules. The most useful question is therefore not simply whether a person is “obsessive,” neat, perfectionistic, or repetitive. It is what psychological process is driving the behavior, how long the pattern has been present, how broadly it appears across life, and what happens when the person tries not to follow it. The National Institute of Mental Health describes OCD in terms of recurring obsessions and compulsions, while a major 2022 clinical review of OCPD describes OCPD as a chronic maladaptive pattern of perfectionism, preoccupation with order and details, and need for control.

OCD vs OCPD at a glance

The shortest accurate distinction is this: OCD is primarily an obsessive-compulsive disorder; OCPD is a personality disorder in DSM-5-TR and is represented within the ICD-11 dimensional personality-disorder model mainly through the anankastia trait domain. The names overlap historically, but one is not a more severe, more “personality-based,” or more permanent version of the other. They can occur separately, and they can occur together. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 34 studies estimated that OCPD was present in about 25% of OCD samples, which is strong evidence that the diagnoses can co-occur while remaining distinct clinical entities (Pozza et al., 2021).

Core clinical pattern

In OCD, the core pattern is usually a cycle in which an intrusive thought, image, urge, doubt, sensation, or “not-just-right” experience becomes highly significant, distressing, or difficult to tolerate. The person responds with a compulsion, avoidance strategy, reassurance request, checking process, mental review, neutralizing act, or another attempt to reduce uncertainty or discomfort. For a detailed explanation of the first part of that cycle, see OCD Obsessions. Hidden rituals are covered in OCD Mental Compulsions.

In OCPD, the core pattern is broader and more trait-like. The person may organize work, relationships, decisions, delegation, morality, productivity, schedules, money, or standards around a persistent need for correctness, control, order, detail, and perfection. The problem is not merely that the person likes structure. Personality pathology involves patterns that are rigid or maladaptive enough to cause significant functional difficulty or distress over time. The American Psychiatric Association’s overview of personality disorders emphasizes enduring, inflexible patterns that cause problems in functioning rather than isolated preferences or habits.

What repeats

OCD often repeats actions because the person feels driven to resolve a threat, doubt, sense of responsibility, contamination concern, forbidden possibility, memory uncertainty, incompleteness, or another obsession-related state. The repetition can bring temporary relief, a brief sense of certainty, or a feeling that the action is finally complete. That relief can reinforce the cycle. Some compulsions are visible, such as washing or checking; others happen entirely in the mind.

OCPD repetition is more often embedded in a stable system of standards and control. A person may repeatedly rewrite a report because anything short of an exact standard feels unacceptable, spend excessive time organizing details because the method itself seems necessary, or resist delegating because others will not do the task in the “right” way. These behaviors can be exhausting and impairing, but their function is not automatically the same as an OCD compulsion.

Insight

The popular formula “OCD is ego-dystonic, OCPD is ego-syntonic” captures a tendency, not a diagnostic law. Many people with OCD experience obsessions and compulsions as unwanted, inconsistent with their values, or excessive. Yet OCD insight varies substantially. DSM-oriented assessment recognizes good or fair insight, poor insight, and absent insight/delusional beliefs within OCD. Our separate guide on OCD Insight explains why a person can meet criteria for OCD even when they are strongly convinced that the feared belief is true.

OCPD traits, by contrast, are often experienced as reasonable, responsible, morally correct, efficient, or necessary. That is one reason other people may notice the rigidity before the person does. But this is not equivalent to total lack of self-awareness. Someone with OCPD may recognize that perfectionism is damaging a relationship, that excessive work is exhausting, or that control is causing conflict while still feeling that the underlying standards are justified. Insight must therefore be assessed as a dimension, not used as a one-question diagnostic shortcut.

Time course

OCD symptoms can begin in childhood, adolescence, or adulthood and may fluctuate in theme and severity. The content of an obsession can change while the underlying pattern of intrusive significance, distress, compulsion, and short-term relief remains recognizable. OCPD is evaluated as an enduring personality pattern that is pervasive across situations and stable enough over time to represent personality functioning rather than a temporary response to stress. A short episode of overworking, a semester of intense perfectionism, or a newly developed checking habit does not by itself establish OCPD.

What is OCD?

OCD is a mental disorder characterized by obsessions, compulsions, or both. The NIMH defines obsessions as recurring intrusive and unwanted thoughts, urges, or mental images and describes compulsions as repetitive behaviors performed because of an urge to do them. Clinically, OCD is recognized when the pattern becomes time-consuming or produces significant distress or functional interference. The presence of a disturbing thought by itself is not enough: intrusive thoughts occur in the general population, and diagnosis depends on the full syndrome.

Obsessions can involve contamination, harm, responsibility, religion, sexuality, relationships, morality, identity, symmetry, mistakes, health, memory, or many other themes. The content matters less diagnostically than the process around it. A person may become trapped in repeated attempts to know with certainty whether something happened, whether they intended harm, whether they are “really” a certain kind of person, whether an object is safe, or whether a decision was correct.

Compulsions may include washing, checking, repeating, ordering, counting, confessing, asking for reassurance, researching, avoiding, reviewing memories, testing feelings, comparing, praying, or silently replacing one thought with another. A behavior can look ordinary while functioning compulsively. Checking a door once is ordinary. Checking it repeatedly because uncertainty feels intolerable and stopping produces escalating distress can be part of OCD. This functional distinction is central to OCD Symptoms.

OCD is also not limited to explicit fear. Some people repeat or arrange things because of incompleteness, tension, sensory discomfort, or a powerful need for something to feel exactly right. Those experiences are discussed in OCD Incompleteness. This matters in the OCD–OCPD differential because “it has to be right” can describe very different mechanisms depending on whether the person is escaping an intrusive internal state or enforcing a broader perfectionistic standard.

What is OCPD?

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive maladaptive pattern of excessive perfectionism, preoccupation with order and details, and a strong need for control. The contemporary review by Pinto, Teller, and Wheaton describes OCPD as chronic and functionally important, with manifestations that can affect occupational performance, close relationships, flexibility, and quality of life. OCPD does not require classic OCD obsessions or compulsions.

A person with OCPD may be so focused on details, rules, lists, schedules, organization, or procedure that the point of an activity is lost. Perfectionism may interfere with completing tasks because the acceptable standard keeps moving upward. Work and productivity can dominate leisure and relationships. Delegation may be difficult because other people are expected to follow a precise method. Rigidity may appear around ethics, values, spending, possessions, or how things “should” be done. These patterns need clinical context: conscientiousness, high standards, frugality, organization, or devotion to work are not diagnoses by themselves.

OCPD also should not be reduced to neatness. Some people with clinically significant OCPD are highly organized; others become inefficient because perfectionism and detail-focus make completion difficult. A person can have a meticulously controlled work process while their physical environment is untidy. The diagnosis concerns the broader configuration of personality traits and impairment, not an aesthetic style.

OCPD in DSM-5-TR and anankastia in ICD-11

Diagnostic systems now describe personality pathology in different ways. DSM-5-TR continues to include specific personality-disorder categories, including OCPD. ICD-11 moved to a dimensional personality-disorder model based on severity and trait qualifiers rather than preserving the same set of categorical personality disorders. In that system, anankastia is the trait domain most closely related to the traditional OCPD construct. The WHO’s 2024 ICD-11 Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Requirements provides the current clinical framework, while a 2021 scoping review found substantial overlap between ICD-11 anankastia and DSM OCPD traits.

This classification difference is clinically relevant because a person can encounter different labels depending on the diagnostic system and setting. It does not mean that one system has “abolished” the underlying pattern. ICD-11 reorganizes personality disorder around severity and trait domains; DSM-5-TR retains a named categorical OCPD diagnosis. For readers comparing reports from different countries, the terminology can therefore look more different than the underlying clinical formulation.

The five differences that matter most

1. Obsession versus personality trait

An obsession is a recurrent intrusive mental event that becomes difficult to dismiss or tolerate. A personality trait is a relatively enduring tendency in how a person perceives, evaluates, relates, and acts. In OCD, a person may think, “What if I caused an accident and somehow forgot?” and spend hours reviewing the drive. In OCPD, a person may believe, “Important work must be performed according to the correct procedure, and I cannot trust others to meet that standard.” Either can create repetitive behavior, but the psychological architecture is different.

2. Compulsion versus rule-governed rigidity

A compulsion is performed because the person feels driven to respond to an obsession or according to rigid rules, commonly to reduce distress, prevent a feared outcome, achieve certainty, or resolve a not-just-right state. Rule-governed OCPD behavior is more characteristically part of a broader style of perfectionism, control, and inflexibility. The same act can therefore belong to different formulations. The form of a behavior never tells the whole story.

3. Immediate function versus broad personal standard

Ask what the behavior is trying to accomplish in the moment. OCD checking often functions as an attempt to neutralize doubt or threat: “I need to check again so I can know nobody was harmed.” OCPD checking may be more closely tied to an internalized standard: “Every detail must be verified because this is the only acceptable way to work.” In real cases these motives can overlap, which is why clinicians assess patterns across multiple situations rather than diagnosing from a single example.

4. Insight and resistance

People with OCD often resist symptoms because the cycle feels intrusive, exhausting, or senseless, but resistance varies and can disappear when conviction is high. People with OCPD may defend standards as appropriate yet still seek help for their consequences. A person’s answer to “Do you know this is irrational?” is therefore insufficient. Clinicians look at conviction, distress, flexibility, resistance, interpersonal consequences, and the relationship between beliefs and repeated behavior.

5. Episodic symptoms versus pervasive personality pattern

OCD can become severe around a particular theme while other areas of personality functioning remain flexible. OCPD requires a broader long-standing pattern that appears across important areas of life. Someone who spends two hours checking the stove because of an intrusive fear of burning down the building may have a focal OCD compulsion without being globally perfectionistic or controlling. Someone whose work, relationships, delegation, schedules, values, and decision-making are all organized around inflexible standards may show an OCPD pattern even without classic obsessions.

Why OCD and OCPD are so often confused

The names are the first source of confusion. Both contain “obsessive-compulsive,” which invites the assumption that they sit on one continuum. Historical terminology contributes to that impression, but modern diagnostic systems separate OCD from personality disorders. Research also supports the distinction: an earlier systematic review found that most people in OCD clinical samples did not have OCPD and most people in personality-disorder samples with OCPD did not have OCD (Mancebo et al., 2005).

The second source is overlapping surface behavior. Both conditions can involve checking, lists, order, repetition, perfectionism, difficulty finishing tasks, indecision, or rigidity. Yet surface similarity is common across psychiatry. Repetition also appears in autism, tic disorders, eating disorders, depression, generalized anxiety, and many nonclinical habits. That is why our broader OCD Differential Diagnosis focuses on function, context, time course, and associated symptoms rather than appearance alone.

Perfectionism in OCD vs OCPD

Perfectionism is one of the most misleading overlap terms. In OCPD, maladaptive perfectionism is central to the personality pattern. In OCD, perfectionistic behavior may occur because a mistake has become linked to threat, guilt, responsibility, uncertainty, contamination, morality, or a need for exactness. A person may rewrite a message twenty times because they fear one ambiguous phrase could harm someone; another may rewrite it because only an exceptionally polished result seems acceptable. Both can become impaired by rewriting, but the feared consequence, subjective experience, and broader personality pattern differ.

Perfectionism also exists outside either disorder. High personal standards can be adaptive, and maladaptive perfectionism can occur with anxiety, depression, eating disorders, burnout, autism, ADHD, or no formal diagnosis. For that reason, “I am a perfectionist” does not meaningfully discriminate OCD from OCPD. A full assessment asks what standards mean to the person, how flexible they are, whether intrusive obsessions are present, whether rituals relieve distress, and whether the pattern is pervasive.

Same behavior, different mechanism: practical examples

Checking

OCD example: after sending an email, Maya repeatedly rereads the sent message because an intrusive doubt says she may have included an offensive sentence without noticing. Each check reduces anxiety for a few seconds, but doubt returns and the checking expands. OCPD-style example: Daniel repeatedly reviews every email because he believes professional communication must meet an exact standard and becomes frustrated when colleagues send work he considers insufficiently precise. Neither vignette is a diagnosis; it illustrates why function matters.

Cleaning and order

OCD example: a person cleans the counter repeatedly because contact with it triggers a contamination obsession and a feared chain of harm. OCPD-style example: a person insists that household items be arranged according to a precise system and becomes controlling when family members deviate because the system is experienced as the proper way to maintain the home. The behavior can look similar, but one is organized around an obsession-compulsion cycle and the other around an enduring standard of order and control.

Rewriting and work

OCD example: a student rewrites a sentence until it feels completely “right,” with mounting tension when stopping early. That can fit the sensory or incompleteness dimension of OCD. OCPD-style example: an employee spends so long refining a report that deadlines are missed because imperfect work feels unacceptable and delegation is avoided. Both cases can involve perfectionistic appearance, but the broader history helps determine whether the pattern is an OCD symptom, an OCPD trait configuration, both, or something else.

Lists and schedules

OCD example: a person makes and remakes a list because they fear that forgetting one item will cause a catastrophe and repeatedly seeks certainty that the list is complete. OCPD-style example: a person structures most activities around detailed lists and schedules, has difficulty adapting when plans change, and expects others to follow the same system because this level of organization is experienced as necessary and correct.

Delegation

Difficulty delegating is especially informative when it reflects a pervasive need for control. In OCD, a person might avoid asking someone else to lock the door because they fear they cannot obtain enough certainty unless they check it themselves. In OCPD, delegation may fail because another person will not perform the task according to the expected method or standard. The observable outcome—doing everything oneself—can be identical while the underlying mechanism differs.

Can someone have both OCD and OCPD?

Yes. Co-occurrence is clinically important. The 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis by Pozza and colleagues included 34 studies and estimated that OCPD was present in about one quarter of OCD samples. That figure is a pooled estimate from research samples, not a probability that can be applied to an individual reader. Its value is conceptual: OCD and OCPD are distinct enough to diagnose separately, yet they overlap often enough that clinicians should actively assess for both when the presentation suggests it.

When both are present, treatment planning may need two formulations. ERP can target the obsession-compulsion cycle, while psychotherapy may also need to address entrenched perfectionism, inflexibility, control, interpersonal conflict, or difficulty delegating. If every rigid behavior is assumed to be a compulsion, treatment can miss the personality pattern. If every repetitive behavior is attributed to perfectionism, true OCD rituals may be overlooked.

How clinicians distinguish OCD from OCPD

Diagnosis is based on clinical assessment, not on one symptom, one questionnaire score, or one internet checklist. Clinicians examine the person’s current symptoms, developmental history, onset and course, triggers, beliefs, emotions, behaviors, avoidance, family or partner accommodation, occupational and relationship functioning, comorbid conditions, substance and medical factors, and degree of insight. The American Psychiatric Association explicitly notes that DSM diagnostic criteria are intended for trained professionals using clinical judgment rather than self-diagnosis by the general public.

For possible OCD, assessment asks whether there are true obsessions and compulsions, how much time they consume, what distress or impairment they cause, what feared or sensory state precedes rituals, and what occurs if rituals are resisted. A clinician may use a structured severity scale such as the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) as one part of assessment; the original scale was developed to measure OCD symptom severity across different obsession and compulsion types (Goodman et al., 1989). A severity score can quantify symptom burden; it does not by itself establish the diagnosis and does not diagnose OCPD. For the distinction between self-report screening and clinical diagnosis, see OCD Test.

For possible OCPD, assessment asks whether perfectionism, order, control, rigidity, work focus, delegation difficulties, or related traits form a longstanding and pervasive pattern across contexts. The clinician also evaluates whether the traits are maladaptive and impairing rather than simply reflecting culture, occupational demands, conscientiousness, or a temporary coping strategy. In ICD-11 settings, personality-disorder severity and trait domains, including anankastia, become part of that formulation.

Differential diagnosis also matters because one person can have several conditions at once. OCD can coexist with depression, anxiety disorders, ADHD, autism, tic disorders, eating disorders, trauma-related disorders, and personality pathology. A good assessment therefore avoids a forced either-or choice when evidence supports comorbidity. Our guide to OCD Diagnosis explains the broader diagnostic process.

Treatment: why the distinction changes the plan

Treatment for OCD

OCD has a well-developed evidence base. Cognitive behavioral therapy that includes exposure and response prevention (ERP) is a first-line psychological treatment. ERP systematically brings the person into contact with obsession-triggering situations, thoughts, images, sensations, or uncertainty while helping them refrain from the compulsive response. A 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis included 30 studies, 39 randomized controlled trials, and 1,793 participants and found a significant overall benefit for ERP (Song et al., 2022).

Medication is also evidence-based for OCD. NICE guidance recommends CBT including ERP and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), with treatment intensity and combination depending on severity and response. Clomipramine is an established option in selected cases, particularly after an adequate SSRI trial has been ineffective or poorly tolerated. Medication choice, dose, interactions, adverse effects, and discontinuation require medical supervision. Our OCD Treatment and OCD Medication guides cover these options in depth.

Treatment does not require proving that every obsession is irrational. ERP works with the person’s responses to uncertainty, threat, and internal discomfort. When insight is poor, engagement may require more time and careful formulation, but poor insight does not automatically convert OCD into OCPD or another disorder. This distinction is especially important when a person strongly believes a feared outcome is likely.

Treatment for OCPD

The evidence base for OCPD is substantially less mature. The 2022 FOCUS review concluded that empirical treatment research is limited and that there is no definitive empirically supported treatment for OCPD. Psychotherapy is commonly used to work on perfectionism, rigidity, control, interpersonal patterns, emotional awareness, and flexibility, but the strength of evidence should not be presented as equivalent to the ERP evidence base for OCD.

Medication evidence for OCPD is especially limited. A 2022 systematic review of randomized controlled trials found only two eligible pharmacotherapy trials and judged the available findings to be of very low certainty. Medication may still be prescribed for co-occurring depression, anxiety, OCD, or other clinically indicated conditions, but that is different from claiming a well-established OCPD-specific medication treatment.

Treatment when OCD and OCPD co-occur

When both conditions are present, a useful plan separates targets. Intrusive obsessional fears, mental rituals, reassurance seeking, checking, and avoidance may be treated through an OCD formulation and ERP. Persistent perfectionistic standards, control, rigidity, and interpersonal difficulties may require additional psychotherapy goals. Progress in one domain does not guarantee that the other will disappear automatically. Treatment should be individualized around the mechanisms producing impairment.

What to do if you are unsure which description fits

Before an assessment, it can help to record concrete episodes rather than labels. Note what happened immediately before a repetitive behavior, what you feared or felt, what you believed the action would accomplish, how you felt after doing it, what happened when you resisted, whether the behavior brings only brief relief, and whether similar rules or standards appear across work, relationships, home life, money, morality, and decision-making. This gives a clinician more useful information than simply saying “I am obsessive” or “I am a perfectionist.”

Also record the time course. Did the pattern begin with a specific intrusive fear, or has a broader style of rigidity and control been present since adolescence or early adulthood? Do symptom themes change? Are there mental rituals no one else can see? Do other people experience you as inflexible even when you are not anxious? Do you recognize the behavior as excessive, or mainly object to the consequences? None of these answers diagnoses a disorder by itself, but together they help build a differential formulation.

If symptoms are consuming substantial time, causing distress, damaging relationships, interfering with work or school, or restricting daily life, a licensed mental health professional with experience in OCD and personality assessment can help clarify the picture. For suspected OCD, specific expertise matters because covert compulsions, taboo obsessions, reassurance seeking, and poor-insight presentations are often missed or mistaken for other conditions.

Frequently asked questions

Is OCPD a type of OCD?

No. OCPD and OCD are separate clinical constructs. OCD belongs to the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders grouping, while OCPD is a personality disorder in DSM-5-TR. ICD-11 represents the traditional OCPD pattern dimensionally through personality-disorder severity and traits such as anankastia. The two conditions can co-occur, but neither is a subtype of the other.

Can OCD turn into OCPD?

OCD is not understood as a developmental stage that turns into OCPD. They have different diagnostic architectures. A person may have OCD alone, OCPD alone, or both. If someone with longstanding OCD later appears more rigid or perfectionistic, that change requires assessment rather than an assumption that one disorder transformed into the other.

Is perfectionism more typical of OCD or OCPD?

Maladaptive perfectionism is especially central to OCPD, but perfectionistic behavior can also be prominent in OCD. In OCD, it may be driven by threat, responsibility, uncertainty, moral fear, or a not-just-right experience. Perfectionism also occurs outside both disorders, so the word itself has low diagnostic specificity.

Do people with OCPD have intrusive thoughts?

Anyone can experience intrusive thoughts. Their presence does not automatically indicate OCD. The diagnostic question is whether recurrent intrusive thoughts or related internal experiences participate in an obsession-compulsion cycle that causes clinically significant distress, time consumption, or impairment. OCPD is defined by a pervasive personality pattern, not by the mere presence or absence of occasional intrusions.

Can someone with OCD believe the obsession is true?

Yes. OCD insight ranges from good or fair to poor and, in some cases, absent. Strong conviction does not by itself rule out OCD. Clinicians assess the full symptom structure, including whether repetitive behaviors or mental acts are linked to the obsession and how the belief behaves over time. This is one reason the simple “OCD patients know their fears are irrational” stereotype is unreliable.

Does OCPD always make someone neat and organized?

No. OCPD centers on maladaptive perfectionism, order, control, and rigidity, but real-world presentation varies. Excessive detail and perfectionism can actually make a person inefficient, late, or unable to finish. Neatness alone is neither necessary nor sufficient for diagnosis.

Which is more severe: OCD or OCPD?

There is no clinically meaningful universal ranking. Either condition can range from relatively limited impairment to profound disruption. Severity is evaluated in the individual: symptom burden, flexibility, distress, occupational and social consequences, safety, comorbidity, and response to treatment all matter. A diagnosis name does not determine how disabled a particular person is.

Can an online test tell OCD from OCPD?

A screening tool can identify symptom patterns worth discussing, but it cannot replace differential diagnosis. OCD severity scales and personality questionnaires measure different constructs, and scores require interpretation in context. A clinician must determine whether reported experiences are obsessions, compulsions, personality traits, another disorder, ordinary variation, or some combination.

Is ERP used for OCPD?

ERP is a well-supported treatment for OCD because it directly targets the obsession-compulsion cycle. OCPD treatment is typically formulated around personality functioning, perfectionism, rigidity, control, and interpersonal patterns, and the research base is much smaller. If a person has both OCPD and OCD, ERP may be appropriate for the OCD component while other psychotherapy targets address OCPD features.

Key takeaway

OCD and OCPD are best distinguished by mechanism, function, pervasiveness, and time course—not by stereotypes about neatness and not by a single ego-dystonic versus ego-syntonic rule. OCD is organized around obsessions and compulsions, including visible rituals and covert mental acts. OCPD is organized around an enduring maladaptive personality pattern of perfectionism, order, control, and rigidity. Insight varies in both. The conditions can co-occur. Correct differentiation matters because OCD has strong evidence for ERP and serotonergic medication, whereas OCPD treatment evidence remains much thinner and focuses on broader personality functioning.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR). American Psychiatric Association Publishing. DSM-5-TR overview.

Gecaite-Stonciene, J., Lochner, C., Marincowitz, C., Fineberg, N. A., & Stein, D. J. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive (anankastic) personality disorder in the ICD-11: A scoping review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 646030. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.646030.

Gecaite-Stonciene, J., Williams, T., Lochner, C., Hoffman, J., & Stein, D. J. (2022). Efficacy and tolerability of pharmacotherapy for obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 23(11), 1351–1358. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2022.2100695.

Goodman, W. K., Price, L. H., Rasmussen, S. A., et al. (1989). The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46(11), 1006–1011. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007.

Mancebo, M. C., Eisen, J. L., Grant, J. E., & Rasmussen, S. A. (2005). Obsessive compulsive personality disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder: Clinical characteristics, diagnostic difficulties, and treatment. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 17(4), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/10401230500295305.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2024). Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: When Unwanted Thoughts or Repetitive Behaviors Take Over. NIMH.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2005, current online guidance). Obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder: treatment (CG31). Recommendations.

Pinto, A., Teller, J., & Wheaton, M. G. (2022). Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: A review of symptomatology, impact on functioning, and treatment. FOCUS, 20(4), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20220058.

Pozza, A., Starcevic, V., Ferretti, F., et al. (2021). Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder co-occurring in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 29(2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000287.

Song, Y., Li, D., Zhang, S., et al. (2022). The effect of exposure and response prevention therapy on obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 317, 114861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114861.

Stein, D. J., Costa, D. L. C., Lochner, C., et al. (2019). Obsessive–compulsive disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 5, 52. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0102-3.

World Health Organization. (2024). Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders (CDDR). WHO.