How Are Personality Disorders Diagnosed? The Clinical Assessment Process
Updated: 3 days ago
Author: Ukrainian Psychological Hub · Published: October 12, 2026 · Editorial Policy
A personality disorder is diagnosed through a clinical evaluation of enduring patterns in how a person understands themselves, manages emotions and behavior, and relates to others. A qualified mental health professional examines the course of these patterns across time and situations, their impact on everyday functioning, the person's developmental and cultural context, and other explanations for the difficulties. A questionnaire, a difficult relationship, an isolated crisis, or a single observed behavior cannot establish the diagnosis.
The most defensible approach combines a detailed clinical interview, a longitudinal history, assessment of self and interpersonal functioning, and, when appropriate, standardized questionnaires and structured diagnostic interviews. The clinician then considers whether the findings satisfy a recognized diagnostic system and develops a collaborative explanation and care plan. This is consistent with an evidence-based assessment review by Widiger, Hines, and Crego, the American Psychiatric Association's patient guidance, and the WHO's ICD-11 clinical requirements.
For a closer explanation of the four LPFS domains, severity anchors, validity studies, and interpretation safeguards, read Level of Personality Functioning Scale: What the LPFS Measures.
What does a personality disorder diagnosis establish?
Personality traits are relatively characteristic ways of feeling, thinking, and behaving. Some traits can be maladaptive in certain contexts, and people can experience serious interpersonal difficulties without meeting criteria for a personality disorder. Personality functioning refers to capacities such as developing a coherent sense of self, pursuing goals, recognizing other people's perspectives, and maintaining relationships. A clinical personality disorder is a diagnostic judgment that enduring disturbances or maladaptive patterns reach the relevant threshold of severity, pervasiveness, and impairment under a specified classification system.
These distinctions matter. A screening result signals possible concerns requiring further assessment; a clinical symptom is a reported or observed feature; and a diagnosis integrates the full pattern, its persistence, the resulting distress or impairment, and alternative explanations. A clinician may describe clinically significant personality difficulties while withholding a categorical diagnosis when the evidence is incomplete.
The American Psychiatric Association describes personality disorders as long-standing, inflexible patterns that create significant distress or problems in functioning, interpreted in relation to cultural expectations. Diagnosis concerns the impact and organization of these patterns rather than a person's moral character or worth.
Who can diagnose a personality disorder, and where does assessment begin?
Psychiatrists and appropriately trained clinical psychologists commonly conduct specialist diagnostic assessments; other licensed mental health clinicians may assess and diagnose within their jurisdiction, training, and practice setting. A primary care clinician may identify concerns, review medical factors, initiate appropriate support, and refer for a more detailed psychiatric or psychological evaluation. For complex or contested presentations, specialist consultation can improve formulation and treatment planning.
An assessment may begin after a referral for recurrent depression, anxiety, self-harm, difficulty sustaining relationships, repeated crises, or a person's own questions about identity and functioning. The referral question is not itself a diagnosis. Clinicians first ask what the person hopes to understand or change, which difficulties are most pressing, and what immediate safety or medical concerns need attention. For possible borderline personality disorder, the APA's 2024 guideline explicitly supports a broad initial evaluation that incorporates the person's goals and preferences, co-occurring disorders, physical health, cultural context, and risk assessment.
The clinical assessment process, step by step
1. Clarifying current concerns, goals, and immediate needs
The opening conversation identifies the person's own description of distress and strengths. Clinicians may ask when problems occur, what precedes and follows them, how they affect work, school, caregiving or relationships, and which changes would matter most. They also assess current depression, anxiety, sleep, substance use, severe mood symptoms, psychotic experiences, medical symptoms, medication effects, and urgent safety concerns as clinically indicated.
A careful assessment is collaborative: patients can ask why a question is relevant, describe experiences in their own language, clarify misunderstood answers, and discuss what information can be shared. Risk questions are asked because safety needs exist across diagnostic groups; a personality disorder label does not imply that a person is dangerous or suicidal. APA BPD practice guideline.
2. Reconstructing the pattern over months and years
Clinicians create a timeline that connects experiences during adolescence and adulthood with periods of relative stability, stress, illness, or major life transitions. They distinguish recurrent difficulties from a temporary reaction to grief, abuse, a manic episode, substance effects, or a medical condition. Information about earlier relationships, academic and occupational functioning, coping, treatment responses, and changes in circumstances can help clarify whether a pattern is enduring and pervasive.
An enduring pattern does not mean identical symptoms occur every day. Someone may function well in a supportive environment yet struggle substantially under particular interpersonal demands, or may improve with treatment while still meeting criteria during part of their history. ICD-11 descriptions emphasize sustained disturbances, typically present for at least two years, alongside severity and context; the DSM framework generally traces the enduring pattern to adolescence or early adulthood. The exact duration and requirements depend on the classification used. WHO ICD-11 CDDR; ICD-11 diagnostic model analysis.
3. Evaluating personality functioning and daily impairment
One of the central tasks is to understand how the person functions in relation to themselves and other people, both in distress and during more stable periods. A clinician explores identity, self-direction, empathy, and intimacy when using the DSM alternative model or corresponding dimensional concepts. These are domains to examine clinically, not items a reader should score independently.
Identity concerns how coherent, stable, and realistic the person's sense of self is; self-direction concerns the ability to set and pursue meaningful goals and reflect on behavior. Empathy includes understanding and appreciating others' experiences and viewpoints, while intimacy concerns the ability to develop and sustain close, mutually responsive relationships. Impairment can vary in form and degree, and emotional reserve, introversion, unconventional identity, or preference for solitude is not evidence of pathology by itself.
Clinicians examine whether difficulties significantly interfere with education, work, parenting, close relationships, practical independence, or quality of life. Context matters: discrimination, poverty, interpersonal violence, inaccessible support, cultural expectations, and the reactions of other people may substantially shape functioning. The DSM alternative model's Level of Personality Functioning Scale and ICD-11's severity approach help organize this aspect of evaluation. Widiger et al., 2024; WHO, 2024.
4. Characterizing symptoms and maladaptive trait patterns
The clinician examines clinically significant patterns in perception and interpretation, emotion regulation, impulsivity or behavioral control, closeness and trust, anxiety about rejection, rigidity, perfectionism, detachment, and other relevant domains. The aim is to identify a coherent pattern and its consequences, while considering what the person experiences internally and what can actually be observed.
The same outward behavior may have different meanings. Repeated reassurance seeking can arise from severe anxiety, traumatic threat responses, dependency-related concerns, or an acute crisis. Impulsivity can appear in ADHD, bipolar mania, substance intoxication, and some personality-disorder presentations. A clinician tests interpretations against the person's timeline and the broader clinical picture instead of inferring a diagnosis from a behavior's appearance.
5. Using structured interviews and questionnaires when useful
A clinician may use a self-report inventory to identify areas warranting discussion and then investigate them in a semistructured interview. In their 2024 review, Widiger and colleagues recommend this multimethod sequence, recognizing that questionnaires and interviews each have distinct strengths and limitations.
A structured assessment can support consistency and coverage, especially in complex presentations, research, and specialty services. The SCID-5-PD is designed to guide assessment of DSM personality-disorder categories. SCID-5-AMPD interviews support evaluation of the DSM alternative model's functioning and trait components. These instruments require appropriate professional competence; a clinician may also conduct a valid assessment without administering every formal instrument. A study of clinician experiences with SCID interviews discusses practical implementation, and research on LPFS interview reliability illustrates how measurement quality can vary by domain and study design.
Screeners, including those available online, can produce false positives and false negatives. Responses depend on self-awareness, interpretation of questions, current distress, cultural fit, and the population in which the instrument was validated. Elevated scores prompt follow-up questions; they do not establish a particular disorder. The APA's assessment-measures guidance treats measures as aids to evaluation and monitoring.
6. Considering information from other sources, with consent
With the person's knowledge and consent when appropriate, clinicians may review previous records or invite observations from someone who knows the person's longer-term behavior. This can help clarify continuity, an earlier episode, or discrepancies between environments. The person's own account remains central. Information supplied by relatives or partners requires careful interpretation because perspectives, power dynamics, conflict, and memory can influence reports.
Privacy and consent rules vary by jurisdiction and clinical setting. An assessment should explain its confidentiality arrangements and the circumstances in which information must be disclosed for safety or legal reasons. Third-party statements do not authorize a clinician to diagnose someone who has never been evaluated.
7. Conducting differential diagnosis and checking co-occurring conditions
The clinician asks which conditions could produce similar experiences and whether two or more diagnoses may independently apply. The goal is a formulation that accounts for symptoms, timing, severity, and functioning without overlooking treatable psychiatric, medical, developmental, or situational causes.
8. Integrating the evidence and explaining the conclusion
At the end of a sufficiently informed assessment, the clinician explains which diagnostic framework was used, what evidence supports the conclusion, which uncertainties remain, what alternative possibilities were considered, and how findings affect treatment. A diagnostic formulation may identify a defined personality disorder, significant personality difficulties that do not meet the full threshold, another condition, several co-occurring conditions, or insufficient evidence to decide.
The explanation should be understandable and actionable. It can include the person's goals, strengths, accommodations, psychotherapy options, treatment of co-occurring conditions, follow-up arrangements, and how progress will be reviewed. A diagnosis can be revisited if later information changes the best-supported formulation.
DSM-5-TR, the DSM alternative model, and ICD-11: how the models differ
DSM-5-TR: categorical personality-disorder diagnoses
The principal DSM-5-TR classification used in U.S. practice retains ten named personality-disorder diagnoses: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. A clinician reviews the general personality-disorder requirements and the condition-specific pattern, including clinically significant impairment and exclusion of better explanations.
Historically, these diagnoses are organized into Clusters A, B, and C. That arrangement is useful for describing the DSM list but should not be treated as a universal diagnostic system or as an independent verdict about an individual. A person can have difficulties across overlapping patterns, and categorical thresholds do not capture every aspect of functioning. APA, What Are Personality Disorders?; APA, What Is the DSM?.
DSM-5-TR Section III: the Alternative Model for Personality Disorders
The alternative model, published in the DSM's Emerging Measures and Models section, emphasizes impairment in personality functioning (Criterion A) and pathological personality traits (Criterion B), alongside other diagnostic requirements. It offers a dimensional way to examine the person's self-related and interpersonal difficulties rather than relying entirely on separate symptom-count categories. It is an alternative framework, not a replacement for the main categorical criteria in DSM-5-TR.
The model evaluates identity, self-direction, empathy, and intimacy using the Level of Personality Functioning Scale. Its trait structure includes negative affectivity, detachment, antagonism, disinhibition, and psychoticism, assessed clinically and sometimes with instruments such as the PID-5. Ratings require interpretation within the full assessment. Studies of structured interviews offer encouraging evidence in some settings alongside important variability; a 2025 pilot reliability study illustrates why trained evaluation and context still matter. Widiger et al., 2024.
ICD-11: personality disorder severity and trait qualifiers
ICD-11 approaches diagnosis by establishing whether a personality disorder is present and evaluating its severity—mild, moderate, or severe—on the basis of the extent of self and interpersonal dysfunction and associated consequences. Clinicians may then specify prominent trait domains: negative affectivity, detachment, dissociality, disinhibition, and anankastia. A borderline pattern qualifier can be added when applicable. ICD-11 also recognizes personality difficulty below the threshold of personality disorder.
The ICD-11 trait domains do not map one-to-one onto DSM categories, and the ICD-11 system is neither the same as the DSM categorical system nor identical to the DSM alternative model. The WHO's 2024 Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Requirements provide the formal clinical framework; a peer-reviewed examination of ICD-11 implementation explains the staged assessment and practical implications.
How clinicians distinguish personality disorders from similar presentations
Mood disorders, including bipolar disorder and depression
Major depression may affect self-esteem, emotion, motivation, and relationships for months. Bipolar mania or hypomania can involve impulsive behavior, intense irritability, and dramatic changes in activity. Clinicians reconstruct identifiable mood episodes and assess which interpersonal or self-related difficulties remain during periods outside those episodes. Both conditions may coexist. Our English Hub's bipolar disorder versus borderline personality disorder guide develops that specific differential without treating mood intensity as a shortcut.
Trauma-related conditions and ongoing adversity
Posttraumatic stress, prolonged interpersonal danger, dissociation, avoidance, shame, emotional dysregulation, and changes in self-concept can overlap with features considered in a personality assessment. Clinicians investigate chronology, trauma-related phenomena, continuing unsafe circumstances, and functioning across environments. A history of trauma by itself proves no personality-disorder diagnosis, while absence of reported trauma does not rule one out.
ADHD, autism, and other neurodevelopmental conditions
Developmental differences can affect emotional regulation, interpersonal communication, flexibility, attention, and organization. Clinicians examine childhood onset, lifelong neurodevelopmental characteristics, sensory experiences, social context, masking or accommodations, and whether a separate enduring personality disturbance is supported. Overlap does not mean that autism or ADHD automatically develops into a personality disorder. Differential research on ICD-11 personality disorder and autism in adolescents discusses assessment complexity; its findings require clinical interpretation rather than self-testing.
Anxiety, OCD, attachment patterns, and relational insecurity
Social anxiety can lead to avoidance, while avoidant personality disorder requires a broader established pattern meeting formal criteria. Perfectionism may be an ordinary trait, an anxiety response, or part of an obsessive-compulsive personality presentation; intrusive obsessions and compulsions point clinicians toward assessment for OCD. Attachment styles such as avoidant attachment are descriptive relationship constructs and are not diagnostic substitutes for avoidant personality disorder. Our social anxiety versus avoidant personality disorder comparison addresses one already published English-language comparison intent.
Dissociation, psychosis, substance use, and medical explanations
A specialist evaluates dissociative experiences, psychotic phenomena, substance intoxication or withdrawal, medication effects, neurological conditions, and other relevant medical causes when indicated. For example, unusual perceptions can occur in more than one diagnostic setting; their duration, severity, insight, context, and other symptoms require direct assessment. A personality diagnosis must never be used to dismiss a new psychiatric or medical emergency.
Is one appointment enough? What happens at a first evaluation?
There is no universal number of appointments or fixed interview length. A clinician may obtain a clear picture relatively quickly when records and a detailed history are available; uncertainty, co-occurring disorders, acute crises, cultural or language barriers, and complex developmental histories may require additional visits, structured interviews, or time to observe a pattern. A diagnostic label assigned in an emergency should be reviewed when the person's condition is more stable.
During a first appointment, a person may be asked about the reason for seeking help, present symptoms, important relationships, education and work, medical and psychiatric histories, developmental experiences, medications and substances, and any current risk. They may complete a questionnaire or be offered a longer interview later. It is appropriate to ask what the assessment will cover, how results are documented, what a diagnostic conclusion means, and what follow-up support will be available. The APA's 2024 guidance emphasizes collaborative diagnostic discussion and treatment planning for BPD; the principles of informed discussion can guide good clinical encounters more broadly without assuming that every guideline recommendation applies to every disorder.
Does a blood test, brain scan, or online quiz diagnose a personality disorder?
No laboratory value, brain image, genetic result, or online score independently establishes a personality-disorder diagnosis in routine clinical practice. Medical tests may be indicated to investigate competing explanations, medication-related problems, or concurrent health concerns. A brain scan is not a clinical personality-disorder classification test.
Screening questionnaires identify possibilities and can help clinicians decide what to explore. Measures such as the PID-5 assess reported maladaptive traits; SCID interviews are clinician-administered diagnostic aids. A positive screening threshold is neither a confirmation nor a substitute for longitudinal assessment. Psychometric evidence also depends on the instrument, language, population, and target diagnosis, as shown by differing validity and reliability findings in SCID-5-PD research and recent structured-interview studies.
Age, development, and cultural context
Can personality disorders be diagnosed in teenagers?
Assessment in adolescence requires developmental expertise, consideration of current circumstances, and evidence that difficulties are persistent, pervasive, and clinically significant rather than developmentally expected. DSM personality-disorder criteria can in selected circumstances be applied before age 18 when the relevant features are present for at least one year, with the exception of antisocial personality disorder, which cannot be diagnosed before 18 and has additional developmental-history requirements. A blanket claim that no personality disorder can ever be diagnosed in a minor misstates the criteria.
Clinicians should avoid making a young person's identity synonymous with a label. They should also avoid delaying appropriate support simply because development continues. The NICE BPD guidance addresses access to services for young people with suspected or diagnosed BPD, while research on adolescent differential diagnosis highlights the need for careful differentiation.
How do culture and social circumstances influence diagnosis?
Culture influences norms of emotional expression, autonomy, family obligations, deference, privacy, identity, and intimacy. Experiences of racism, displacement, poverty, disability discrimination, minority stress, and interpersonal harm may shape clinical presentation and access to assessment. A competent evaluation asks whether an apparent deviation reflects a person's cultural world, a situational adaptation, or a clinically impairing pattern.
Translation quality, culturally validated instruments, clinician assumptions, and unequal access to specialist services affect diagnostic accuracy. The APA's Cultural Formulation Interview resources and the WHO's internationally oriented ICD-11 requirements provide relevant frameworks for evaluating context.
What makes diagnosis difficult or inaccurate?
Personality assessment is challenging because people change with age and circumstances, traits and disorders exist on overlapping dimensions, different diagnoses share observable symptoms, and an individual's experiences vary across relationships. A clinician may see only the person during severe distress; self-report may omit relevant experiences, while reports from others may be biased. Interviewing methods and levels of clinician training also affect reliability.
Diagnostic practices vary by service and classification system. Researchers have found meaningful agreement in some interview settings and weaker agreement for certain domains or disorders in others. For example, an interrater reliability investigation of the SCID-5-AMPD reported substantial variation in ratings in a small pilot sample. The appropriate scientific conclusion is to use multimethod information and revisit uncertainty, rather than assuming a questionnaire or even a single interview is infallible.
Labels such as “quiet BPD,” “covert narcissism,” “favorite person,” “psychopath,” and “sociopath” circulate widely, but they are not standalone DSM-5-TR or ICD-11 personality-disorder diagnoses. Likewise, describing someone as “Cluster B,” “toxic,” or “a narcissist” supplies no diagnostic evidence. Assessment belongs to a qualified clinician evaluating the person directly, not to online commentary or conflict narratives.
What happens after a diagnosis?
A meaningful assessment leads to a formulation and treatment plan that addresses the person's most important difficulties, functioning, safety needs, preferences, strengths, and relevant co-occurring conditions. The clinician should explain whether the conclusion is firm or provisional and agree on how its accuracy will be reviewed. Treatment planning may include specialist psychotherapy, targeted management of another diagnosed condition, family involvement with consent, practical supports, and monitoring of functional recovery.
For BPD, the American Psychiatric Association's 2024 practice guideline recommends structured psychotherapy supported by research, a person-centered treatment plan, and collaborative discussion of diagnosis and care. This recommendation should not be copied wholesale to other personality disorders, where disorder-specific evidence may be less substantial. NICE guidance for BPD and antisocial personality disorder also illustrates that clinical priorities vary by diagnosis and context.
A diagnosis need not dictate a permanent future. Symptoms and functioning can change with treatment, relationships, environments, and time. Monitoring should include real-world goals and quality of life alongside symptom reduction. Effective care addresses the person's needs even when diagnostic uncertainty persists.
How to prepare for a personality disorder assessment
It can help to make a brief timeline of concerns, periods when difficulties were more or less prominent, important life transitions, previous treatment, medications, and conditions already diagnosed. Bring examples from several settings if possible: what happens at work, in family or close relationships, and when alone. Describe both difficulties and strengths, including which circumstances make functioning easier.
Questions worth asking include which diagnostic criteria or framework are being used, whether other conditions have been considered, how questionnaires contribute to the conclusion, whether a follow-up evaluation is recommended, and what support is available now. If the assessment discusses trauma or other painful experiences, a person can ask about pacing, confidentiality, and post-assessment support; NICE specifically recommends support after sensitive assessment for possible BPD.
If a diagnosis seems inconsistent with the person's history, request clarification about the evidence and differential diagnosis or seek a second qualified opinion. A second opinion should review the original reasoning rather than start from a presumption that either clinician must be wrong.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can a therapist tell whether I have a personality disorder in one session?
A clinician may identify a strong possibility during an initial interview, but a reliable conclusion depends on the completeness of the history, evidence of an enduring pattern, degree of impairment, and alternative diagnoses. Sometimes additional interviews or records are needed.
What questions are asked in a personality disorder assessment?
Questions commonly cover identity, emotional responses, relationships, goals, decision-making, coping behavior, functioning, developmental history, trauma and stress, current psychiatric symptoms, and treatment history. They are individualized; a structured interview may add standardized questions linked to formal criteria.
Can a psychiatrist diagnose a personality disorder without psychological testing?
Yes. A sufficient, skilled clinical evaluation can support diagnosis. Standardized inventories and interviews can strengthen a complex assessment, but they are aids and not mandatory in every case. Widiger et al., 2024.
Can someone have more than one personality disorder?
Under the DSM categorical framework, it is possible to meet criteria for more than one. Clinicians should establish each diagnosis independently and consider dimensional models that describe underlying severity and traits. APA.
What if I have traits but do not meet the diagnostic threshold?
A clinician can document meaningful traits, difficulties with personality functioning, or another clinical condition while recommending support tailored to actual needs. A person does not have to acquire a personality-disorder diagnosis to deserve treatment.
Can PTSD, ADHD, autism, or bipolar disorder be mistaken for a personality disorder?
Yes, overlapping features can contribute to diagnostic confusion. Timing, developmental onset, distinctive syndromes, the course of symptoms, and enduring self/interpersonal functioning are essential. More than one condition can also be present.
Will the diagnosis appear in my medical record?
Documentation depends on the clinician, setting, applicable laws, and administrative requirements. Ask the service how diagnostic impressions, provisional diagnoses, insurance claims, and access to records are handled. A collaborative conversation should explain any diagnosis being recorded.
Can a personality disorder diagnosis change?
Yes. The formulation can be revised when new clinical evidence emerges, and a person may later cease to meet full criteria as symptoms and functioning improve. Reviewing the diagnosis is part of sound care.
Can I diagnose a partner or family member by recognizing these signs?
No. Relationship concerns, abusive behavior, and repeated conflict can be addressed directly without diagnosing a person at a distance. Formal evaluation requires a qualified clinician, the person's history, and appropriate assessment.
When is urgent help needed?
Immediate assessment is appropriate for imminent danger of self-harm or harm to others, severe intoxication, acute mania, psychosis, or another medical or psychiatric emergency, regardless of whether a personality disorder is suspected. Contact local emergency services or an urgent mental health service when immediate safety is at risk. Risk assessment concerns the present situation rather than a stereotype attached to a diagnosis.
Related Articles
For the consequences of labeling, respectful disclosure, and stigma during assessment, see Personality Disorders and Stigma: Language, Diagnosis, and Care.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR). Official diagnostic manual overview.
American Psychiatric Association. (2024). The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Borderline Personality Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 181(11). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.24181010.
American Psychiatric Association. (n.d.). DSM-5-TR Online Assessment Measures. Official assessment measures.
American Psychiatric Association. (n.d.). What Are Personality Disorders? Official patient guidance.
Gharraee, B., et al. (2022). Psychometric Properties of Persian Version of Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 for Personality Disorders. East Asian Archives of Psychiatry. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36578184/.
Heltne, A., et al. (2022). Norwegian Clinicians' Experiences of Learnability and Usability of SCID-II, SCID-5-PD and SCID-5-AMPD-I Interviews. Journal of Personality Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1975726.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2009). Antisocial personality disorder: prevention and management (CG77). Clinical recommendations.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2009). Borderline personality disorder: recognition and management (CG78). Clinical recommendations.
Steijer, S., Steingrimsson, S., Meyerson, N., & Sand, P. (2025). The interrater reliability of the Swedish version of the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders, Module I and Module II. BMC Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07615-4.
Widiger, T. A., Hines, A., & Crego, C. (2024). Evidence-Based Assessment of Personality Disorder. Assessment, 31(1), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911231176461.
World Health Organization. (2024). Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders. WHO official publication.