Espresso Macchiato vs Latte Macchiato: What Is the Difference?

Author: Ukrainian Psychological Hub · Published: September 28, 2026 · Editorial Policy

Espresso macchiato and latte macchiato use the same basic pairing—espresso and milk—but they reverse which ingredient is dominant. An espresso macchiato is espresso “marked” with a small amount of milk or milk foam. A latte macchiato is milk “marked” with espresso. The first is small, concentrated, and coffee-forward; the second is much milkier, larger, softer in flavor, and often visually layered.

If both drinks are made with the same espresso dose, adding more milk does not remove the caffeine already present in the espresso. It mainly changes dilution, temperature, texture, sweetness, aroma balance, and perceived intensity. In real cafés, however, shot count and espresso recipe vary, so the name of the drink alone does not tell you exactly how much caffeine is in the cup.

The distinction becomes easy once you remember the grammar of the Italian name: the noun tells you what the drink mostly is, and macchiato tells you that it has been “marked” by the other ingredient. The Accademia della Crusca’s Osservatorio degli Italianismi nel Mondo defines caffè macchiato as coffee to which a little milk has been added, while its entry for latte macchiato describes milk darkened or marked by a small amount of coffee.

Espresso macchiato vs latte macchiato at a glance

Base: Espresso macchiato starts with espresso. Latte macchiato starts with milk.

What “macchiato” refers to: In espresso macchiato, the coffee is marked with milk. In latte macchiato, the milk is marked with coffee.

Milk amount: Espresso macchiato uses only a small amount. Latte macchiato uses substantially more milk.

Serving size: Espresso macchiato is usually served in a small espresso-size cup. Latte macchiato is usually served in a larger cup or tall glass.

Taste: Espresso macchiato remains strongly espresso-forward. Latte macchiato tastes much milkier and less concentrated.

Texture: Espresso macchiato adds a small cap or spoonful of foam or textured milk. Latte macchiato makes milk texture a major part of the drink.

Visual appearance: Espresso macchiato looks like espresso with a pale mark. Latte macchiato is often served to show distinct milk, coffee, and foam regions.

Perceived strength: Espresso macchiato usually tastes stronger because the coffee is less diluted. That does not automatically mean it contains more total caffeine.

Caffeine: If the espresso dose and extraction are the same, total caffeine can be similar. Café recipes can differ enough that the actual dose must be checked rather than inferred from the drink name.

Best fit: Choose espresso macchiato when you want espresso with a small softening touch of milk. Choose latte macchiato when you want milk to dominate the drink and espresso to function as a concentrated accent.

What does “macchiato” mean?

The Italian verb macchiare means to mark, stain, or spot. In coffee language, the logic is relational: one beverage is altered by a relatively small amount of another. That is why caffè macchiato and latte macchiato are mirror constructions rather than two names for the same recipe.

The linguistic record matters because English-language menus often shorten “caffè macchiato” to “macchiato,” while some international chains use the word in names for much larger, sweeter beverages. The Accademia della Crusca OIM entry anchors the Italian caffè macchiato meaning in coffee with a little milk. Its separate latte macchiato entry makes the reversed construction explicit: milk is the principal beverage and coffee is the mark.

This naming distinction is more useful than memorizing one fixed ounce count because there is no single global café authority enforcing an identical macchiato recipe everywhere. Cup size, espresso yield, milk quantity, foam style, and local convention vary. The stable conceptual difference is which ingredient forms the base.

What is an espresso macchiato?

An espresso macchiato, also called caffè macchiato, is an espresso with a small amount of milk, usually steamed or foamed. It remains an espresso-centered drink. The milk modifies the surface, aroma, texture, temperature, and first sip, but it does not turn the cup into a milk-dominant beverage.

The espresso base is still doing most of the sensory work: concentrated dissolved coffee solids, roast-derived aromas, bitterness, acidity, crema, body, and the particular balance created by the shot. For a detailed explanation of extraction, crema, dose, yield, and why espresso can feel unusually intense, see Espresso: What It Is, How It Is Made, Caffeine, Crema, and Why It Feels Strong.

A practical home espresso macchiato

A useful home starting point is one freshly pulled espresso topped with roughly one to two tablespoons of steamed milk or fine milk foam. Treat that as a practical range rather than a universal law. If the cup is mostly milk, you have moved away from the central idea of an espresso macchiato.

For the most integrated texture, steam the milk into fine bubbles rather than stiff, dry foam. Spoon or pour only enough to soften and “mark” the espresso. Taste immediately, because a small drink changes temperature quickly and the balance between crema, foam, aroma, and liquid shifts as it sits.

What is a latte macchiato?

A latte macchiato is a milk-dominant drink in which espresso is added to hot milk and foam. The name literally reverses the relationship: instead of milk marking coffee, coffee marks milk. The OIM/Accademia della Crusca entry records the term as milk marked by coffee and also notes the English sense of hot steamed milk served with a very small quantity of espresso.

In contemporary café practice, latte macchiato is commonly built in a larger vessel, often a tall transparent glass, because the contrast among denser liquid milk, darker espresso, and foam is part of the recognizable presentation. The layers are visually useful, but the drink does not need to remain perfectly stratified to be a latte macchiato.

A practical home latte macchiato

Start with about 120–180 mL (4–6 fl oz) of milk as a workable home range. Steam it so you have hot liquid milk plus a substantial but fine-textured foam layer. Pour the milk into a tall heat-safe glass, let it settle briefly, then pour one espresso slowly through or onto the foam. The exact layering depends on density, foam structure, pouring speed, temperature, and how long you wait before adding the espresso.

That recipe is intentionally flexible. A café may use a different glass size, more milk, a double espresso, a ristretto-style shot, or a different foam ratio. What preserves the identity of the drink is that milk is the dominant base and espresso is added as the marking component.

The decisive difference: what gets marked

The easiest way to stop confusing the two drinks is to ask one question: what is the base? In espresso macchiato, the base is espresso. In latte macchiato, the base is milk. Everything else—volume, taste, texture, visual layering, apparent sweetness, and perceived strength—follows from that reversal.

This also explains why simply calling both drinks “espresso plus milk” is technically true but practically unhelpful. Ingredient lists do not capture proportions or construction. A teaspoon of salt in a pot of soup and a pot of salt with a teaspoon of soup contain the same two named ingredients, yet they are obviously different foods. Espresso macchiato and latte macchiato differ in the same structural sense.

Milk-to-espresso ratio and serving size

Espresso macchiato uses a low milk-to-coffee ratio. Latte macchiato uses a high milk-to-coffee ratio. Because cafés do not share one universal recipe, it is more accurate to think in relative terms than to declare a single mandatory ratio.

For an espresso macchiato, one espresso with a spoonful or small pour of textured milk preserves the intended coffee-forward structure. For a latte macchiato, one espresso in a much larger volume of hot milk produces the milk-forward structure. If a shop doubles the espresso while keeping milk constant, the latte macchiato will taste more coffee-forward; if it increases milk without changing the shot count, the drink will taste less concentrated.

Serving size therefore changes sensory concentration even when caffeine does not change. A single espresso dispersed through a large milk volume can taste gentle while delivering the caffeine of that shot. A compact espresso macchiato can taste intense because the coffee compounds remain highly concentrated in a small volume.

Which one tastes stronger?

Espresso macchiato usually tastes stronger because the espresso is only lightly modified by milk. Latte macchiato usually tastes milder because the same coffee contribution is spread through much more milk. Here “stronger” means greater perceived coffee intensity or concentration, not automatically more caffeine.

This distinction is central to coffee language. People use “strong” to mean dark-roasted, bitter, concentrated, high in caffeine, intense in aroma, or physiologically stimulating, and those properties do not move together in a simple one-to-one way. Research on coffee communication has shown that even textual and visual claims about “strength” can influence expectations and perceived strength. In an experiment with coffee consumers, Fenko, de Vries, and van Rompay (2018) found that labeling and imagery affected product expectations and aspects of perceived strength. That is one reason a drink that looks concentrated can feel “stronger” before caffeine enters the discussion.

If you want the most coffee-forward flavor, espresso macchiato is the more reliable choice. If you want a softer, milk-dominant profile, latte macchiato is the more reliable choice.

How milk changes flavor perception

Milk does more than dilute coffee. It changes the chemical and physical environment in which aroma and taste compounds are experienced, contributes its own aroma and taste, alters viscosity and mouthfeel, and changes the temporal sequence of sensations across a sip.

A 2025 study in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry examined medium- and dark-roasted Arabica coffee with cow or oat milk added at 30% by weight. Milk strongly changed sensory perception and reduced the dominance of several coffee-related flavor notes, even though the changes in measured in-vivo release of coffee volatiles were not systematic. The authors explicitly cautioned that sensory experience and instrumental aroma release do not map onto each other in a simple way. Read the open-access study.

That result is directly relevant to the macchiato comparison because latte macchiato places milk near the center of the sensory experience, while espresso macchiato uses milk as a smaller modification. It does not mean every latte macchiato will taste the same or that milk simply “blocks bitterness.” Roast, espresso extraction, milk composition, temperature, foam, and ratio all matter.

Texture and foam: why the drinks feel so different

The amount and structure of milk foam change how the drink contacts the lips and tongue, how aroma reaches the nose, how quickly the liquid flows, and how creamy or airy the beverage feels. Espresso macchiato gives you a short transition from foam or textured milk into concentrated espresso. Latte macchiato gives you a longer milk-dominant texture that can vary from silky to distinctly foamy.

Milk microfoam is a physical structure, not just decoration. Research on steam-frothed dairy milk has found that processing type and heating temperature can change foam stability, viscosity, and bubble-size distribution. In the study by Klimanova and colleagues (2022), steam heating conditions materially changed the resulting microfoam and its sensory properties.

For a good espresso macchiato, very coarse, dry foam can sit like an isolated cap and make the first sip feel disconnected from the espresso. Fine foam integrates more readily with crema and liquid. For latte macchiato, stable foam helps maintain the familiar layered presentation, but extremely stiff foam can make the drink feel more like separate zones than one coherent beverage.

Sweetness: why latte macchiato often seems sweeter

A plain latte macchiato does not need added sugar to seem sweeter than an espresso macchiato. It contains much more milk, and dairy milk contains lactose while many plant-based barista beverages have their own sweet, cereal, nutty, vanilla-like, or caramel-like sensory profiles. At the same time, the coffee’s bitterness and roast intensity are diluted across a larger volume.

Perceived sweetness is not simply the number of grams of sugar in a drink. It is part of an integrated sensory pattern shaped by aroma, temperature, texture, bitterness, acidity, and expectation. The 2025 milk-addition study found that cow and oat milk introduced their own dominant sensory notes while reducing the prominence of coffee-related flavors. The study supports the broader point that changing the milk matrix changes the sensory experience, not merely the color of the cup.

If syrup or flavored sauce is added, you are dealing with an additional recipe variable. A chain-style caramel macchiato, for example, is a flavored beverage with its own formula and should not be treated as a synonym for either traditional espresso macchiato or plain latte macchiato.

Temperature changes the experience too

Temperature affects aroma release, sweetness, bitterness, tactile sensation, and how quickly a drink can be consumed. Espresso macchiato is small and can cool quickly. Latte macchiato has greater thermal mass but also a large milk component whose heating history matters.

In a controlled study of milk coffee, Koizumi and colleagues (2019) compared samples prepared at different coffee temperatures and found measurable differences in bitterness, sweetness, aftertaste, aroma-related variables, and preference. The study was specific in design and population, so it does not establish one universal “best” temperature for all macchiatos. It does show that serving temperature is part of flavor perception rather than a neutral background variable.

Practically, overheating milk can flatten fresh dairy aromas and produce a different texture, while serving a drink too cool can suppress some aromatic intensity and change mouthfeel. Good preparation aims for milk that is hot enough for the intended beverage while preserving stable fine foam and a pleasant drinking temperature.

Caffeine: does espresso macchiato have more than latte macchiato?

Not necessarily. Caffeine comes mainly from the espresso portion. Milk contributes essentially no caffeine unless the milk product itself contains a caffeinated ingredient. If one espresso macchiato and one latte macchiato are built from the same espresso shot, the total caffeine can be similar even though the espresso macchiato tastes much stronger.

Actual café servings vary. A 2024 analysis of 299 coffee samples found large differences in caffeine per serving across preparation types and retail contexts, reinforcing that serving name and cup size are imperfect guides to dose. Wierzejska and Gielecińska (2024) also showed that coffee purchased outside the home could differ substantially from home-prepared servings.

The safe comparison is therefore recipe-based: count the espresso shots and understand the café’s espresso dose rather than using milkiness, bitterness, darkness, or cup size as a proxy for caffeine. Milk changes concentration per milliliter; it does not erase caffeine already extracted into the espresso.

Calories and nutrition: which is lighter?

An espresso macchiato usually contains far less milk, so a plain version generally contains less energy, milk sugar, protein, and fat than a latte macchiato made with the same milk. Exact nutrition depends on milk quantity, dairy fat percentage, plant-based formulation, serving size, and any sugar, syrup, cream, or toppings.

That is why generic calorie numbers are often misleading. A small unsweetened latte macchiato made with one kind of milk and a large flavored version made with another can differ dramatically. For a precise nutrition comparison, use the actual recipe or the café’s published nutrition data.

Why does latte macchiato form layers?

The classic layered appearance comes from the interaction of liquid density, foam, temperature, and pouring technique. Steamed milk contains a denser liquid phase and a lighter foam phase. When espresso is added carefully, it can pass through the upper foam and settle into a darker band above or within the milk before complete mixing occurs.

The visual pattern is transient. Diffusion, convection, sipping, stirring, and foam collapse progressively blur the boundaries. A perfectly separated three-layer photograph is therefore a presentation state, not a permanent chemical structure and not a requirement for flavor quality.

Layering also changes expectation. A tall glass with visible separation communicates “milk first, coffee accent” before the first sip. That visual cue can contribute to perceived richness, delicacy, or strength, although the actual sensory result still depends on the recipe.

Does the order of pouring change the taste?

Order changes the initial physical arrangement and the sequence in which the drink reaches your senses. In a latte macchiato, espresso entering a milk-and-foam structure can create distinct zones, so an unstirred first sip may not have the same coffee-to-milk ratio as a later sip. In an espresso macchiato, a small cap of milk meets a concentrated espresso base almost immediately.

If both drinks were mixed completely until their final compositions were identical, the importance of order would shrink substantially. But ordinary drinking is dynamic rather than perfectly homogenized: temperature gradients, foam, crema, aroma release, and sip location all change over time. So order matters most because it shapes structure and temporal experience, not because pouring espresso second creates a fundamentally different caffeine molecule or new coffee species.

The psychology of perceived strength and expectation

Espresso macchiato looks small, dark, and concentrated. Latte macchiato looks large, pale, and milk-dominant. Those cues can create expectations before tasting. Expectations then interact with the drink’s real physical properties. Psychology adds explanatory depth here without replacing coffee chemistry: the milk ratio objectively changes concentration and texture, while the drink’s name and appearance help the brain interpret those signals.

Coffee-specific experiments support this distinction. Fenko et al. (2018) found that strength-related wording and visual metaphors could affect expectations and perceived strength. In a separate specialty-coffee experiment, de Sousa, Carvalho, and Pereira (2020) showed that label color and shape changed pre-tasting expectations of sweetness and acidity and influenced hedonic judgments, even though those design manipulations did not significantly change the post-tasting ratings of those sensory attributes in the same way.

The useful conclusion is precise: expectation can shape parts of the experience, but it does not manufacture the drink’s objective ratio, caffeine dose, temperature, or foam structure. A latte macchiato is physically milkier than an espresso macchiato when made according to the ordinary definitions; expectation changes how that difference is interpreted, not whether the milk is actually there.

Preference does not reveal personality

Choosing espresso macchiato over latte macchiato does not provide a scientifically valid personality test. A preference can reflect learned taste, caffeine goals, milk tolerance, desired serving size, time of day, cultural familiarity, texture preference, sweetness preference, habit, availability, or simple curiosity.

Someone may prefer a concentrated espresso taste in the morning and a milkier drink later without undergoing a personality change. Coffee preference is behavior in context. It can be psychologically interesting without being a stable diagnostic fingerprint of character.

Espresso macchiato vs latte macchiato vs latte

A standard café latte and a latte macchiato are both milk-dominant espresso drinks, but they are not identical concepts. A latte usually emphasizes an integrated mixture of espresso and steamed milk with a thin layer of microfoam. Latte macchiato emphasizes milk as the base and espresso as the mark, often with more visible layering.

The exact difference depends on local café convention because modern lattes and latte macchiatos overlap in ingredients and can overlap in size. The most stable distinction is construction and emphasis rather than a universal ounce rule. For the dedicated latte definition, milk ratios, caffeine, and texture, see Latte: What It Is, Caffeine, Milk Ratio, and Why Texture Changes the Experience.

What about caramel macchiato?

“Caramel macchiato” on a chain menu is a branded or style-specific flavored drink, usually involving substantial milk plus sweeteners or sauces. Its name does not make it equivalent to a traditional espresso macchiato. It is better understood as a separate recipe that borrows the macchiato naming idea.

The same caution applies to any menu label. Read the ingredient list or ask how the café builds the drink. The word macchiato alone cannot guarantee one standardized international recipe.

How to choose between the two

Choose espresso macchiato if…

You want the espresso to remain the center of the drink; you enjoy concentrated coffee flavor but want a small amount of softness; you prefer a short serving; or you want milk texture without turning the drink into a large milk beverage.

Choose latte macchiato if…

You want milk to dominate the volume and mouthfeel; you prefer a gentler coffee concentration; you enjoy a larger, slower drink; you like visible layering; or you want the espresso to function as an aromatic and bitter contrast within a creamy base.

Neither choice is inherently more sophisticated, more authentic, healthier, or more caffeinated. They solve different sensory problems.

How to make an espresso macchiato well

1. Pull a balanced espresso into a small warmed cup. Fix espresso problems first: milk cannot fully rescue a shot that is sharply under-extracted, harshly over-extracted, stale, or badly imbalanced.

2. Steam a small amount of milk until it forms fine, glossy foam. You need only a little, so avoid wasting a large pitcher if your equipment can texture a smaller volume reliably.

3. Add one spoonful or a small pour of textured milk to the espresso. The drink should still look and taste primarily like espresso.

4. Taste before adding more milk. If you keep increasing milk until the espresso becomes secondary, you are moving toward a different drink style.

5. Serve immediately. Small volume means rapid temperature change, and the foam-crema interaction evolves quickly.

How to make a latte macchiato well

1. Steam enough milk for a larger beverage, aiming for smooth liquid milk and fine foam rather than large dry bubbles. The research on steam-frothed milk shows that temperature and processing conditions affect foam structure, so technique matters. Klimanova et al. (2022).

2. Pour the hot milk and foam into a tall heat-safe glass. Let the foam rise and the liquid settle for several seconds if you want more visible layering.

3. Pull the espresso separately. Pour it slowly into the milk, preferably through one spot in the foam. The espresso will create the characteristic darker mark or band.

4. Leave the drink layered if you enjoy changing ratios from sip to sip, or stir it for a more uniform flavor. Stirring does not make it cease to be a latte macchiato; it simply changes the serving structure after preparation.

5. Adjust the next cup by changing only one variable at a time: espresso dose, milk volume, milk temperature, or foam amount. That makes it easier to learn which change improved the drink.

Common mistakes and myths

Myth: espresso macchiato and latte macchiato are basically the same drink

They share ingredients, but the base and proportions are reversed. That changes serving size, concentration, texture, appearance, and the role milk plays in the sensory experience.

Myth: the stronger-tasting one always has more caffeine

Espresso macchiato usually tastes stronger, but if both drinks use the same espresso dose their total caffeine can be similar. Caffeine depends on the actual coffee dose and extraction, not on how pale or milky the final beverage looks.

Myth: latte macchiato must have exactly three perfect layers

Layering is characteristic and visually useful, but it depends on technique and changes over time. The core definition is milk marked with coffee, not a photographic requirement.

Myth: espresso macchiato must contain only foam and no liquid milk

Real café practice varies. Some baristas spoon mostly foam; others add a small quantity of textured milk and foam. The stable criterion is that milk remains a small modification to espresso.

Myth: ordering one drink says something reliable about your personality

There is no sound basis for diagnosing personality from this choice. Preference is shaped by sensory history, context, culture, habits, physiology, and practical goals.

Frequently asked questions

What is the main difference between espresso macchiato and latte macchiato?

Espresso macchiato is espresso marked with a little milk. Latte macchiato is milk marked with espresso. Espresso is the base of the first; milk is the base of the second.

Which one has more milk?

Latte macchiato, by a large margin in ordinary café practice. Espresso macchiato uses only enough milk or foam to mark and soften the espresso.

Which one tastes stronger?

Espresso macchiato usually tastes stronger and more coffee-forward because it is far less diluted with milk. That is a statement about sensory intensity, not necessarily total caffeine.

Which one has more caffeine?

You cannot know from the name alone. If both use the same espresso dose, they can contain similar caffeine. A café that uses different shot counts or doses can reverse that expectation.

Is latte macchiato the same as a latte?

They overlap in ingredients but emphasize different construction. Latte macchiato starts from milk and is marked with espresso, often with visible layers; a café latte is usually presented as a more integrated espresso-and-steamed-milk drink.

Is espresso macchiato the same as a cortado?

No. A cortado generally uses much more milk relative to espresso and is designed around a more balanced coffee-to-milk volume. Espresso macchiato keeps milk as a small accent.

Is caramel macchiato a traditional macchiato?

No. It is a flavored café recipe with substantial milk and sweet components. It should not be used as the reference definition for traditional espresso macchiato.

Can I make either drink with plant-based milk?

Yes. The drink structure still works, but foam stability, viscosity, flavor, sweetness, and separation depend strongly on the plant beverage formulation. Barista-formulated products are often designed to foam more predictably.

Why does my latte macchiato not form layers?

Likely causes include very thin foam, pouring too quickly, insufficient settling time, similar densities at the moment of pouring, or immediate mixing. Layering is sensitive to temperature and technique.

Should latte macchiato be stirred?

That is a preference choice. Leaving it unstirred creates changing coffee-to-milk ratios across the drink; stirring produces a more uniform taste and texture.

Which is better for someone who dislikes bitter coffee?

Latte macchiato is usually the easier choice because more milk lowers coffee concentration and can reduce the dominance of bitter and roast-related sensations. The actual result still depends on espresso quality, roast, milk, temperature, and ratio.

Which one is better with breakfast?

There is no universal answer. Choose based on the serving size, milk quantity, flavor intensity, and caffeine dose you want. Cultural conventions differ, and preference is contextual rather than a rule of coffee physiology.

The bottom line

Espresso macchiato and latte macchiato are mirror drinks. Espresso macchiato is espresso with a small mark of milk; latte macchiato is milk with a mark of espresso. That reversal produces the practical differences people notice: one is small, concentrated, and coffee-forward; the other is larger, milk-forward, creamier, and often layered.

Milk quantity changes much more than color. It changes concentration, viscosity, foam, aroma balance, temperature, apparent sweetness, and the timing of sensations across a sip. Peer-reviewed sensory work confirms that milk addition, milk foam, and temperature can materially change coffee experience. At the same time, caffeine must be treated separately from perceived strength: a milky drink can contain the same espresso dose as a much stronger-tasting short drink.

The simplest ordering rule is therefore also the most accurate one: order espresso macchiato when you want espresso with a touch of milk; order latte macchiato when you want milk with a touch of espresso. For the broader map of coffee drinks, beans, brewing, caffeine, taste, and perception, see Coffee: Beans, Drinks, Caffeine, Brewing, Taste, and Psychology.

Related Articles

Coffee: Beans, Drinks, Caffeine, Brewing, Taste, and Psychology — the global Coffee Psychology & Coffee Knowledge hub.

Americano Coffee: What It Is, Caffeine, Taste, and Why Dilution Changes Perceived Strength — another espresso-based drink that separates sensory concentration from total caffeine.

Espresso: What It Is, How It Is Made, Caffeine, Crema, and Why It Feels Strong — the espresso-base mechanism behind both macchiato styles.

Mocha Coffee: What It Is, Caffeine, Chocolate, and Why Sweetness Changes Coffee Perception — a neighboring Coffee Drinks article on milk, sweetness, and coffee perception.

Latte: What It Is, Caffeine, Milk Ratio, and Why Texture Changes the Experience — the dedicated latte owner for milk ratio, microfoam, caffeine, and texture.

Flat White vs Latte: Milk, Espresso, Texture, and Taste — the dedicated flat-white-versus-latte comparison for milk volume, microfoam, taste, caffeine, and perceived strength.

References

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de Sousa, M. M. M., Carvalho, F. M., & Pereira, R. G. F. A. (2020). Colour and shape of design elements of the packaging labels influence consumer expectations and hedonic judgments of specialty coffee. Food Quality and Preference, 83, 103902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.103902

Fenko, A., de Vries, R., & van Rompay, T. (2018). How Strong Is Your Coffee? The Influence of Visual Metaphors and Textual Claims on Consumers’ Flavor Perception and Product Evaluation. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 53. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00053

Klimanova, Y., Polzonetti, V., Pucciarelli, S., Perinelli, D. R., Bonacucina, G., Cespi, M., Gabrielli, M. G., Santini, G., Fioretti, L., Cognigni, L., & Vincenzetti, S. (2022). Effect of steam frothing on milk microfoam: Chemical composition, texture, stability and organoleptic properties. International Dairy Journal, 135, 105476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2022.105476

Koizumi, A., Tokuda, A., Sato, Y., & Mineki, M. (2019). Effects of the Taste and Flavor of Milk Coffee When Milk Heated to Different Temperatures Is Added. Journal of Home Economics of Japan, 70(7), 416–424. https://doi.org/10.11428/jhej.70.416

Ravesi, M. (2025). Latte macchiato. Osservatorio degli Italianismi nel Mondo, Accademia della Crusca. https://www.italianismi.org/stampa-scheda-italiano/per-stampa/2321

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Wierzejska, R. E., & Gielecińska, I. (2024). Evaluation of the Caffeine Content in Servings of Popular Coffees in Terms of Its Safe Intake—Can We Drink 3–5 Cups of Coffee per Day, as Experts Advise? Nutrients, 16(15), 2385. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39125266/