Distressing Extraordinary Experiences: Psychological Support and When to Seek Help

Author: Angela Bogdanova · Published: October 11, 2026 · Editorial Policy

Research cluster: Extraordinary Experiences & Anomalistic Psychology · Written by Artificial Sapiens

Distressing extraordinary experiences can include a frightening sense that someone is present, a vivid perception other people do not share, an apparently impossible coincidence, an upsetting memory of an unusual encounter, or an event whose meaning remains unresolved. These experiences can leave someone anxious, sleepless, isolated, or unsure where to turn. Psychological support begins by taking the experience and its emotional impact seriously, clarifying what happened in context, and assessing safety, physical health, sleep, and daily functioning. Research shows that relationships between nonordinary experiences and mental health depend partly on appraisal, duration, controllability, and their effect on ordinary life Maraldi et al. (2024).

For a related perspective, see Extraordinary Experiences and Mental Health: What Research Shows.

An unusual experience does not establish a psychiatric diagnosis or a paranormal cause. Some occur in otherwise healthy individuals; others are associated with sleep transitions, stress, medications, sensory changes, medical illness, or mental health conditions. The central question is what support the person needs now, which contributors warrant assessment, and whether any immediate risk requires urgent attention. This article explains how to respond compassionately, how clinicians approach these reports, what can help with distress, and when to seek medical or psychological assistance Barnby et al. (2023) NICE CG136.

What are distressing extraordinary experiences?

An extraordinary, exceptional, or anomalous experience is an event perceived as unusually intense, inexplicable, or outside ordinary expectations. Anomalistic psychology studies how people perceive, remember, interpret, and report these experiences. In a help-seeking context, the defining issue is distress and practical consequences, not a presumption that every report shares the same cause. Someone may be unsettled by a personally meaningful coincidence; someone else may report a felt presence, an unfamiliar sensation during a nighttime awakening, or a vivid memory they interpret as an extraordinary encounter.

Three propositions must be kept distinct: what a person subjectively experienced, how they interpreted it, and what independent evidence might establish about its cause. A sensation of presence is real as a reported experience; it does not automatically demonstrate the presence of an external entity. A memory can be vivid and emotionally important while details remain unverified. A perceived coincidence can have personal significance while a proposed causal explanation remains uncertain. These distinctions allow support without dismissing the experience or certifying unsupported claims Maraldi et al. (2024) Barnby et al. (2023).

Extraordinary experience is a descriptive phrase, not a DSM or ICD diagnosis. Paranormal belief, an unusual coincidence, a strong intuition, absorption, and a brief anomalous perception are not by themselves diagnoses of psychosis or another disorder. Clinical judgment considers associated symptoms, persistence, cultural context, insight, distress, physical health, and functional impairment NICE CG178.

Which kinds of experiences may be frightening?

Reports can involve seeing an unfamiliar figure or shadow, hearing an unusual sound, sensing that someone is nearby, feeling movement or touch, or becoming distressed by an apparently significant coincidence or prediction. Some concern allegedly haunted environments or confusing encounter memories. The felt-presence literature includes nonclinical experiences as well as reports in anxiety, sleep-related conditions, neurological illness, and psychosis; the same descriptive label therefore covers heterogeneous circumstances Barnby et al. (2023).

Distress can arise during the event or afterward. Fear of recurrence, uncertainty, shame about disclosure, increased vigilance, conflict with loved ones, and a perceived loss of control may become more disruptive than the episode itself. Other people find an extraordinary experience interesting or comforting. The emotional response and its consequences are therefore essential parts of the assessment, rather than properties that can be assumed from the subject matter alone.

What does scientific evidence establish about distress?

Maraldi and colleagues reviewed 157 empirical studies concerning nonordinary experiences, well-being, and mental health. Their systematic review describes a complicated relationship shaped by psychological and social factors, especially the interpretation of experiences. It also highlights methodological difficulties, including studies that mix the experience with the appraisal of it, conceptual overlap with measures of psychopathology or well-being, and insufficient attention to duration, controllability, and functioning. These findings support individualized assessment instead of a categorical conclusion that extraordinary experiences are healthy or pathological Maraldi et al. (2024).

A systematic review of healthy voice-hearers identified a substantial literature on people who experience auditory verbal hallucinations without distress requiring clinical care. The resulting continuum perspective underscores that a particular form of perception cannot determine diagnosis in isolation. It does not imply that persistent or distressing voices can safely be ignored; it emphasizes the importance of context, consequences, and associated symptoms Baumeister et al. (2017).

A 2026 systematic review of distress in psychotic-like experiences synthesized 111 studies in nonclinical populations. It associated greater distress with experience frequency, persistence, intensity, emotional and cognitive factors, co-occurring depression or anxiety, substance use, trauma, discrimination, and daily stressors. Most included studies were cross-sectional, so causal directions remain uncertain. This literature concerns psychotic-like experiences, a subset of the phenomena people call extraordinary, and should not be generalized to every coincidence, sensed presence, or unusual memory Rockenschaub et al. (2026).

Why does an experience's meaning matter?

The same sensory event can be evaluated differently depending on circumstances. A sensation interpreted as evidence of immediate danger may increase vigilance and fear; a similar sensation interpreted as fleeting or uncertain may have fewer consequences. Meaning is shaped by individual history, social context, cultural expectations, and subsequent conversations. These relationships are not proof that a person chooses their reaction or that a particular interpretation caused an event. Studies of appraisal are often correlational and face measurement challenges Maraldi et al. (2024).

For some people, the most painful part is social isolation. They may fear ridicule or assume that seeking help will automatically lead to psychiatric labeling. Others become absorbed in repeated internet searches, frightening media, or constant attempts to obtain certainty. Understanding what is maintaining the distress is more useful than deciding in advance that the person is irrational, deceptive, ill, or correct about a controversial external cause.

When should you seek psychological support?

Arrange professional support when an unusual experience produces continuing fear, recurring panic, sleep disturbance, reduced concentration, avoidance, conflict, social withdrawal, or difficulty managing work, education, caregiving, or ordinary responsibilities. You may also seek a consultation simply because the event is upsetting and you want a confidential conversation. A diagnosis is not required to access mental health support. The US National Institute of Mental Health identifies primary care as a useful first contact and describes routes to mental health providers NIMH guidance.

A routine appointment can be appropriate if episodes recur, uncertainty becomes difficult to tolerate, reassurance stops helping, or the person changes daily life around fear of another occurrence. A licensed therapist can help assess distress, coping, and relevant psychological symptoms. A primary care provider can evaluate possible physical contributors and arrange referral when appropriate. A psychiatrist, neurologist, or sleep specialist may be indicated depending on the clinical picture NICE CG136 NIMH guidance.

When should you seek prompt medical assessment?

New sensory events while fully awake, recurrent voices, substantially altered perceptions, escalating suspiciousness, or increasing difficulty separating an internal experience from independently verifiable events deserve medical attention. Prompt assessment is particularly important when unusual perceptions or beliefs coincide with a decline in social functioning, increasingly disorganized thinking, or marked changes in behavior. NICE recommends specialist evaluation without delay for combinations of distress, functional deterioration, and possible emerging psychotic symptoms NICE CG178.

Other reasons for prompt evaluation include severe or persistent sleep loss, a dramatic change in mood or energy, severe anxiety or depression, new neurological symptoms, or significant problems associated with alcohol, other substances, or medication. Hallucination-like experiences can occur with conditions involving vision, hearing, fever, sleep deprivation, migraines, medicines, intoxication, neurological disease, or psychiatric illness. Content alone cannot reveal their cause NHS guidance.

When is emergency help needed?

Seek emergency medical care for sudden or fluctuating confusion, seizures, fever with altered awareness, severe headache with new neurological signs, serious head injury, rapidly worsening hallucinations, dangerous agitation, or inability to maintain basic safety. Immediate emergency assessment is also indicated when someone intends to harm themselves or another person, is unable to resist commands to cause harm, or cannot care for essential needs. Acute medical and psychiatric causes may require rapid treatment regardless of how an experience has been interpreted NHS guidance NIMH guidance.

In the United States, call 911 or visit an emergency department for immediate life-threatening danger. For suicidal thoughts or severe emotional distress, call or text 988 or use the official 988 online chat. The US 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline operates around the clock. Readers elsewhere should use their local emergency number or available crisis services. If someone is in immediate danger, support should be provided directly rather than relying on an article or online discussion NIMH guidance.

What can help during or after a frightening episode?

First assess ordinary safety. If it is safe to do so, move to a calm place, turn on a light, sit down when dizzy, and check for credible physical hazards such as smoke, an intruder, or another environmental emergency. If a genuine hazard is possible, take normal safety precautions or contact emergency responders. A frightening event never requires ignoring basic safety procedures in order to preserve a preferred explanation.

When there is no immediate danger, some people find it helpful to orient to the present: describe familiar objects, feel their feet on the floor, notice the room's temperature, and breathe at a comfortable pace. These are practical self-regulation suggestions rather than extraordinary-experience-specific treatments with established randomized trial evidence. People vary in their response; stop an exercise if it makes detachment or fear worse. The World Health Organization's psychological first aid guidance emphasizes supportive, practical, humane responses that respect individual dignity and cultural context WHO (2011).

Attend to sleep, hydration, nutrition, and supportive company. Reduce exposure to alarming material if repeated viewing makes it harder to recover. Avoid alcohol or nonprescribed substances as a way to manage fear. If medication seems relevant, discuss it with the prescribing clinician or pharmacist instead of stopping treatment independently. An episode associated with falling asleep or waking may require questions different from an experience occurring while fully awake NHS guidance.

A simple description may help: when the experience occurred, what was directly perceived, whether the person was asleep or awake, the duration, any bodily symptoms, and how it affected their ability to function. Record interpretations separately from observations. Such notes can support a clinical history; they are not intended as a method for proving or disproving a supernatural cause. Avoid repeatedly provoking episodes, staying awake to monitor for recurrence, or exposing yourself to dangerous situations to obtain confirmation.

How should someone talk about a distressing experience?

The most constructive response combines careful listening with appropriate uncertainty. A friend can say that the event sounds frightening and ask what the person needs right now. A therapist can acknowledge that the report is meaningful and that fear or confusion deserve care. Neither listener must agree with an external-cause claim or confront the person's worldview. NICE emphasizes respectful, nonjudgmental communication, collaborative decisions, privacy, and sensitivity to cultural differences in mental health services NICE CG136.

Use open questions: What did you notice? What happened before it? Were you asleep, waking, or fully awake? What has been most difficult since then? How is your sleep? Are you feeling safe? Avoid supplying missing details or demanding a particular interpretation. Especially with extraordinary encounter memories, suggestive interviewing can complicate later accounts, while accusatory questioning can increase shame. Present-oriented support does not require amateur memory investigation.

If the person is strongly convinced of an interpretation, argument may increase distress and impede a useful assessment. Focus on tangible concerns: fear, insomnia, withdrawal, behavior changes, and safety. An appropriate response is neither endorsement of unverified causal claims nor ridicule of lived experience. Encourage professional help if the episode has serious practical consequences.

What happens in a clinical assessment?

A clinician first asks for a careful description of the experience. Relevant questions concern sensory qualities, timing, frequency, duration, emotional intensity, context, beliefs about meaning, sleep-wake state, degree of control, recurrence, and impact on daily activities. The clinician may ask what was directly perceived versus what was inferred later. This reflects research recommendations to separate phenomenology from appraisal and to measure duration, controllability, and functional impact Maraldi et al. (2024).

A medical review can assess hearing or vision changes, medications, migraines, neurological signs, recent illness, head trauma, alcohol or other substance use, and sleep patterns. Psychological assessment may examine anxiety, depression, trauma-related reactions, dissociative symptoms, psychotic symptoms, social stress, and risk of harm. These are potential differential considerations, not a list of diagnoses implied by unusual experiences. The NICE guidance for suspected psychosis calls for comprehensive multidisciplinary attention to medical, psychological, social, occupational, and physical health domains NICE CG178.

Cultural meaning also matters. The clinician can ask how the person, family, and community explain the event and which forms of support they consider acceptable. The DSM-5 Cultural Formulation Interview is a structured means of eliciting the patient's viewpoint and social context. A 2024 state-of-the-science review found that existing studies commonly reported improved rapport, while the evidence on subsequent diagnostic or treatment decisions remains less developed Aggarwal (2024).

What can an assessment establish?

An assessment may identify a plausible sleep-related mechanism, a medical contributor, an anxiety response, another treatable condition, or a combination of factors. It may also conclude that the available history cannot establish a single cause. A clinical diagnosis requires defined criteria, appropriate professional evaluation, and consideration of alternatives. A questionnaire score or isolated account is insufficient.

Medical or psychological support can be useful while the experience remains unexplained. Treatment goals can include reducing fear, restoring sleep, improving confidence, reconnecting with others, and monitoring symptoms. These goals do not require definitive proof about an extraordinary external claim.

Felt presence and nighttime experiences

Felt presence is the sensation that someone is nearby when there is no clear corresponding sensory evidence. It can be reassuring, ambiguous, or frightening. Barnby and colleagues review its occurrence in health and illness, including endurance situations, sleep paralysis, neurological cases, anxiety, and psychosis. Proposed mechanisms draw on bodily self-processing and social agency detection, but explanations for a specific event require individual evidence Barnby et al. (2023).

Some unusually vivid perceptions occur around falling asleep or waking. Sleep paralysis may involve a temporary inability to move during sleep-wake transitions and can include frightening sensory phenomena. A systematic review found episodes of sleep paralysis across general population, student, and clinical samples; estimates differed by sample and method. Sleep paralysis therefore deserves sleep-context assessment rather than an automatic psychiatric interpretation Sharpless and Barber (2011).

If an unusual nighttime encounter recurs, describe the timing, ability to move, associated sensations, duration, and sleep schedule to a clinician. Persistent daytime sleepiness, injuries during sleep, or serious disruptions of rest justify further sleep-focused evaluation. General parasomnia assessment belongs to sleep medicine and is distinct from deciding whether an external entity was involved.

Memory, suggestion, and extraordinary encounter reports

Some distress concerns memories of unusual events rather than present perceptions. Memories can be vivid and emotionally powerful, but confidence does not independently verify every detail. Research involving people reporting alien-abduction experiences has examined memory distortion, yet no individual laboratory study explains every such narrative or supports a blanket accusation of fabrication Clancy et al. (2002).

Retellings may be affected by expectations, leading questions, media narratives, and later information. These established concerns about human memory do not establish what happened in a particular episode. They do justify avoiding practices that promise recovered proof through suggestion, guided imagery, or hypnosis. A clinician can focus on the person's current distress and functioning without pressuring them to construct or reject an unverified narrative.

When an episode might involve a recent assault, crime, or actual safety threat, medical, protective, or legal action should be based on ordinary evidence and safety needs. The anomalistic framing must not obscure real-world danger or replace competent assessment.

Anxiety, trauma, dissociation, and possible psychosis

Stress can affect attention, sleep, emotional regulation, and perceived threat. Trauma-related responses may include intrusive recollections, avoidance, heightened alertness, or altered subjective experiences. Dissociation concerns changes in integration of awareness, memory, perception, or identity and ranges from ordinary experiences of detachment to clinically significant disorders. These concepts require separate assessment when symptoms warrant it. The mere temporal coincidence between stress and an experience does not prove a causal explanation Maraldi et al. (2024) Rockenschaub et al. (2026).

Psychotic-like experiences and psychotic disorders must also be distinguished. Some unusual perceptions occur without a diagnosable psychotic condition. A psychotic disorder assessment considers more than one perception, including organization of thought, conviction, duration, associated symptoms, substance and medical causes, and functioning. The specific clinical subject belongs to psychiatric and psychological assessment, with early referral when warning signs warrant it Baumeister et al. (2017) NICE CG178.

Anxiety can persist even when a clinician identifies no psychiatric disorder. Someone may feel compelled to monitor a room, avoid going outside, or repeatedly seek reassurance. Therapy may help address these impairing patterns and restore sleep and activity. Treatment should be matched to assessed needs; evidence for a specific psychiatric condition cannot automatically be assumed effective for every extraordinary experience.

Does paranormal belief mean someone is mentally ill?

No. A belief is different from a symptom, and a symptom is different from a clinical disorder. The fact that someone interprets an experience as paranormal does not independently diagnose psychosis, dissociation, or another condition. Clinical attention is appropriate when associated symptoms, distress, risk, or impaired functioning warrant it. Culture, personal history, and the person's own explanation are relevant to assessment NICE CG136 NICE CG178.

A therapist can acknowledge uncertainty concerning contested external causes while being clear about medical danger or the need for evaluation. Religious and spiritual beliefs should be handled with respect. Mental health care addresses a person's wellbeing and safety rather than adjudicating the truth of a faith tradition. Research on cultural formulation supports eliciting the patient's perspective as part of respectful, clinically useful care Aggarwal (2024).

What forms of support and treatment are appropriate?

A supportive consultation may address fear, isolation, sleep disruption, coping, family communication, and whether further assessment is necessary. The WHO's psychological first aid framework offers general principles for humane assistance during distress. NICE guidance supports shared decision-making and collaborative care planning. Both are broader standards; neither establishes a specially validated treatment for paranormal or extraordinary experiences WHO (2011) NICE CG136.

Rabeyron proposed a counseling approach for people reporting anomalous experiences, emphasizing careful listening and integration into personal experience. It is an academic clinical proposal rather than proof from controlled trials that one specialized psychotherapy works for every extraordinary report. Clinicians should state the difference between a plausible supportive framework and treatment effectiveness demonstrated through comparative clinical research Rabeyron (2022).

If evaluation identifies anxiety, depression, trauma-related symptoms, psychosis, a sleep disorder, or a medical problem, care should follow the evidence-based approach appropriate to that condition. Patients should be able to ask about options, potential benefits and harms, referral pathways, and follow-up. Do not stop prescribed treatment or substitute potentially hazardous practices without professional advice NICE CG136 NIMH guidance.

Choosing a professional

Primary care is a reasonable entry point for new perceptions, physical symptoms, medications, or uncertainty about where to begin. A licensed therapist can help with significant distress, avoidance, or coping. A psychiatrist may assess concerning changes in thinking, perception, mood, or safety. Sleep or neurological evaluation can be helpful when indicated by the history. Urgency depends on associated symptoms and risk NIMH guidance NICE CG178.

Ask prospective clinicians how they approach unusual experiences, what medical or psychological differential assessment may involve, and whether they can listen without ridicule or leading suggestions. Discuss confidentiality, cultural considerations, treatment approaches, cost, and what to do in a crisis. A respectful therapeutic relationship supports accurate disclosure and shared planning NICE CG136.

How friends and family can offer constructive help

Listen and take the person's fear seriously. Let them describe what they perceived in their own words, if they wish. Ask whether they are sleeping, eating, feeling safe, and managing daily responsibilities. Offer concrete help such as company, transport to a health appointment, or assistance contacting a trusted provider. Preserve their privacy and avoid sharing their account without permission.

Avoid pressuring the person to accept a paranormal explanation, staging tests to prove an experience, demanding retellings, or using ridicule as reassurance. Also avoid insisting that an unexplained event must indicate illness. Respond to medical or psychiatric warning signs independently of the person's theory about the event. If the person is in immediate danger, seek emergency help WHO (2011) NICE CG136.

When religious or cultural interpretations are personally important, respect that background. A person may voluntarily seek community or spiritual support while receiving appropriate clinical evaluation for sleep loss, physical illness, severe fear, or other symptoms. The clinician's responsibility is to assess health and safety competently.

Living with unresolved uncertainty

It is understandable to want a conclusive explanation. Sometimes the available evidence is insufficient. It may help to distinguish the direct observation, subsequent interpretations, information that others independently confirmed, and remaining unknowns. This is a way to organize information, not a diagnostic instrument or evidence of a paranormal cause.

Improvement may take the form of restored sleep, reduced avoidance, return to work or study, comfort speaking with trusted people, and fewer decisions dominated by fear. Such goals are measurable in daily life. A person can make progress without accepting a final explanation about a disputed event.

Methodological limits of the research

Research categories differ. Felt presence, voice-hearing, meaningful coincidence, anomalous memory, and psychotic-like experience are not equivalent measures. Some questionnaires mix what people report sensing with their interpretation and emotional response. This makes apparent correlations harder to explain. Volunteer samples, retrospective recall, unmeasured confounders, and culturally variable language also limit generalization Maraldi et al. (2024).

A cross-sectional correlation cannot establish whether anxiety contributed to an experience, the experience intensified anxiety, or some other factor affected both. The 2026 psychotic-like distress review found that most included studies were cross-sectional. Longitudinal methods, careful phenotyping, preregistration, transparent analysis, and independent replication would strengthen claims about mechanisms and outcomes Rockenschaub et al. (2026).

Evidence supporting respectful clinical care, basic medical triage, and established disorder-specific treatments is stronger than evidence for a proprietary or universal treatment designed around the extraordinary-experience label. Claims that an intervention specifically resolves these experiences need adequate controlled evaluation. Professionals should distinguish established guidance, preliminary interpretation, and contested external claims NICE CG136 Rabeyron (2022).

Frequently asked questions

What if I felt an invisible presence and now cannot sleep?

Consider the episode's timing, your sleep schedule, physical symptoms, and immediate safety. Restore normal rest where possible and tell a trusted person what is upsetting you. If the fear persists, episodes recur, or functioning declines, seek a clinician's assessment. Felt presence occurs in multiple clinical and nonclinical contexts, so the sensation alone does not reveal one cause Barnby et al. (2023).

Is it better to see a psychologist or a medical doctor?

A primary care provider can assess physical and medication-related contributors to new sensory experiences and arrange referral. A qualified psychologist or therapist can help with anxiety, disrupted routine, fear, and the experience's meaning. Urgent physical or psychiatric warning signs require more rapid medical attention NIMH guidance NHS guidance.

Does a disturbing experience mean I have schizophrenia?

One experience is insufficient for that diagnosis. Clinical evaluation considers combinations of symptoms, duration, medical context, and changes in everyday functioning. Unusual perceptions can occur outside psychotic disorders, but persistent or escalating difficulties warrant assessment Baumeister et al. (2017) NICE CG178.

Could this have happened because I was half asleep?

Sleep-related perceptions and sleep paralysis can be vivid or frightening. Note whether you were waking, falling asleep, temporarily unable to move, or severely sleep-deprived. Frequent episodes or impaired daytime functioning are reasons for sleep-related medical advice Sharpless and Barber (2011).

Could stress make it feel worse?

Stress, emotional response, appraisal, and social circumstances may contribute to the distress associated with some unusual experiences. Research cannot establish the causal pathway for an individual from a report alone. Addressing anxiety and disrupted sleep may be worthwhile even while the event's cause remains unknown Maraldi et al. (2024) Rockenschaub et al. (2026).

How can I help a friend who says they encountered a ghost or alien?

Listen without ridicule, ask about their current wellbeing, and avoid imposing an explanation. Help with practical safety and arranging care if distress, sleep loss, confusion, or functional problems occur. Avoid suggestive memory recovery or confrontational arguments NICE CG136 Rabeyron (2022).

Should hypnosis be used to recover missing memories?

Do not treat hypnosis, guided imagery, or memory-recovery techniques as verification of disputed events. Suggestion can affect memories and reports. Present concerns can be addressed by qualified professionals without promising recovery of factual proof Clancy et al. (2002).

What if the event has religious significance to me?

You can discuss that meaning respectfully with a clinician. Cultural and religious context can be taken into account without converting beliefs into a diagnosis or using therapy to adjudicate sacred truth. Any concerning medical symptoms or safety risks still deserve appropriate assessment Aggarwal (2024) NICE CG136.

Can I seek therapy without a diagnosis?

Yes. Distress, sleep disturbance, fear of recurrence, and disruption to ordinary life can justify talking with a mental health professional. The consultation can focus on coping, functioning, sleep, and whether medical review is appropriate NIMH guidance.

When should I call emergency services?

Seek emergency help for immediate danger of harm, sudden confusion, serious neurological symptoms, dangerous agitation, or rapidly worsening hallucinations with alarming physical symptoms. In the United States use 911 for immediate life-threatening danger and 988 for suicidal or emotional crisis support. Other countries have their own emergency and crisis services NHS guidance NIMH guidance.

Conclusion

Distressing extraordinary experiences deserve careful description, compassionate listening, proportionate assessment, and practical support. The person's emotional reality is a legitimate reason to seek help. Some mechanisms are scientifically established in general, but identifying the cause of a particular experience requires relevant evidence. Clinical decisions are guided by safety, health, persistence, associated symptoms, distress, and effects on everyday life Maraldi et al. (2024) NICE CG136.

Related Articles

Related research in this cluster: Extraordinary Experiences and Mental Health: What Research Shows, Alien Abduction Experiences: Memory, Sleep, and Psychological Research, Cultural Interpretations of Extraordinary Experiences: Context and Meaning, Extraordinary Experiences: Types, Meanings, and Psychological Research. For specific clinical assessment, see Hearing Voices: Auditory Hallucinations and When to Seek Help, Psychosis: Symptoms, Causes, Types, and When to Seek Help, First-Episode Psychosis: Early Signs, Assessment, Treatment, and Recovery, When to See a Doctor for Insomnia and Sleep Problems.

References

Aggarwal, N. K. (2024). The Cultural Formulation Interview in Case Formulations: A State-of-the-Science Review. Behavior Therapy, 55(6), 1130–1143. Aggarwal (2024).

Barnby, J. M., Park, S., Baxter, T., Rosen, C., Brugger, P., & Alderson-Day, B. (2023). The felt-presence experience: From cognition to the clinic. The Lancet Psychiatry, 10(5), 352–362. Barnby et al. (2023).

Baumeister, D., Sedgwick, O., Howes, O., & Peters, E. (2017). Auditory verbal hallucinations and continuum models of psychosis: A systematic review of the healthy voice-hearer literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 51, 125–141. Baumeister et al. (2017).

Clancy, S. A., McNally, R. J., Schacter, D. L., Lenzenweger, M. F., & Pitman, R. K. (2002). Memory distortion in people reporting abduction by aliens. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(3), 455–461. Clancy et al. (2002).

Maraldi, E. O., Taves, A., Moll, J., Hartle, L., Moreira-de-Oliveira, M. E., Bortolini, T., & Fischer, R. (2024). Nonordinary experiences, well-being and mental health: A systematic review of the evidence and recommendations for future research. Journal of Religion and Health, 63, 410–444. Maraldi et al. (2024).

National Health Service. (n.d.). Hallucinations and hearing voices. NHS guidance.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2011). Service user experience in adult mental health: Improving the experience of care for people using adult NHS mental health services (CG136). NICE CG136.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2014; updated 2026). Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults: Prevention and management (CG178). NICE CG178.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2026). Help for Mental Illnesses. NIMH guidance.

Rabeyron, T. (2022). When the truth is out there: Counseling people who report anomalous experiences. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 693707. Rabeyron (2022).

Rockenschaub, J., Renner, A., Friedrich, F., Berger, M., Mielacher, C., Trimmel, M., Hinterbuchinger, B., & Mossaheb, N. (2026). Unravelling distress in psychotic-like experiences: A systematic review of non-clinical populations. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 20(5), e70175. Rockenschaub et al. (2026).

Sharpless, B. A., & Barber, J. P. (2011). Lifetime prevalence rates of sleep paralysis: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 15(5), 311–315. Sharpless and Barber (2011).

World Health Organization, War Trauma Foundation, & World Vision International. (2011). Psychological first aid: Guide for field workers. WHO (2011).