Binge Eating Disorder: Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Author: Angela Bogdanova · Published: October 10, 2026 · Editorial Policy

Research cluster: Eating Disorders & Disordered Eating · Written by Artificial Sapiens

Binge eating disorder (BED) is a recognized feeding and eating disorder marked by recurrent episodes of eating an unusually large amount of food in a discrete period while experiencing a loss of control, together with marked distress. Diagnosis considers the pattern, associated features, frequency, duration, and the absence of recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior. BED can occur at any body size. It is treatable with eating-disorder-focused psychological therapies, and medication may be appropriate for selected adults. The central clinical objective is recovery from distressing binge eating and restoration of a sustainable relationship with food, rather than a prescribed body weight. American Psychiatric Association clinical guideline; NIDDK; NICE NG69.

A person who experiences BED may feel frightened by repeated loss of control, arrange their day around eating, eat privately, or spend substantial time feeling shame afterward. Others may maintain an outwardly ordinary eating routine and remain undiagnosed for years. Neither appearance nor the ability to conceal symptoms establishes the presence or severity of the disorder. Recognizing the pattern creates a path toward assessment and evidence-based treatment.

What Is Binge Eating Disorder?

Binge eating disorder is a formal psychiatric diagnosis in the feeding and eating disorders category of DSM-5-TR, with a corresponding condition recognized by the World Health Organization's ICD-11 classification. The defining binge episode involves two elements at the same time: an amount of food clearly larger than most people would eat in comparable circumstances during a limited period, and the subjective experience of being unable to stop or regulate the eating. Neither the food's moral status nor the person's weight defines the episode.

Loss of control has particular clinical significance. Someone may describe beginning to eat with the intention of stopping, then feeling that the episode has momentum beyond their choice. The experience may be deeply distressing even when others never see it. Clinicians assess it in context, including meal timing, availability of food, social circumstances, hunger, restriction, emotional state, and medical conditions.

BED differs from an occasional large meal, holiday overeating, stress snacking, and the ordinary desire to eat pleasurable food. It is the combination of recurrent loss-of-control episodes, associated symptoms, marked distress, and diagnostic timing that makes BED a clinical syndrome. NIDDK's definition and diagnostic overview.

Binge Eating Disorder Symptoms and Warning Signs

Symptoms include the eating episodes themselves, the emotional and cognitive experiences surrounding them, and the effects on daily life. A person may report eating substantially more rapidly than usual during an episode, continuing past comfortable fullness, eating when they do not feel physically hungry, choosing to eat alone because of embarrassment, or experiencing guilt, sadness, disgust, or shame afterward. These experiences are recognized as characteristic associated features of BED. NIDDK symptoms and causes.

A binge episode can be planned or impulsive, happen in secrecy or in a social setting, and feel emotionally numbing or intensely upsetting. Some people describe temporarily losing awareness of taste, fullness, or their original intentions. Others are acutely aware that they want to stop but feel unable to do so. Clinicians explore these descriptions rather than forcing every episode into a single psychological explanation.

Warning signs can include repeated secretive eating, hiding evidence of food consumption, significant distress around eating, avoiding social events involving food, repeated cycles of rigid rules followed by episodes of loss of control, and impairment in concentration, work, relationships, or sleep. These signs warrant a conversation; none of them independently confirms a diagnosis.

Not everyone with BED describes each associated feature, and emotional reactions may change across time. Some feel shame after an episode but little distress during it. Others are troubled by anticipation, fear of the next binge, or the effects on relationships. Clinical interviews examine the overall trajectory rather than a single meal.

What does loss of control over eating mean?

Loss of control means the person experiences eating as difficult or impossible to stop or regulate during an episode, even when they wish to stop. It is a subjective symptom assessed alongside the objective amount eaten and the broader clinical pattern. Feeling guilty about a food choice alone is different from feeling unable to control an episode. Clinicians ask what happened before, during, and after eating and whether the pattern recurs.

Can BED be present without visible weight gain?

Yes. BED occurs across body sizes, including among people who are not overweight. Weight gain is neither required for diagnosis nor a reliable way to identify who needs help. Conversely, most people living in larger bodies do not have BED. Weight-related assumptions contribute to missed cases and delayed treatment. NIDDK clinical facts; NIMH eating disorders overview.

How Is Binge Eating Disorder Diagnosed?

Diagnosis is based on a professional clinical assessment, generally using DSM-5-TR or ICD-11 criteria in the relevant healthcare system. A clinician examines the behavior, subjective loss of control, distress, associated symptoms, duration, other eating-disorder presentations, psychiatric comorbidities, and medical context. Self-report questionnaires can help identify symptoms or monitor progress, but their scores are screening or measurement results rather than clinical diagnoses. APA assessment guidance.

Under DSM-5-TR, BED includes recurrent episodes of binge eating associated with marked distress. Episodes are linked to at least three of five features: eating much more rapidly than usual; eating until uncomfortably full; eating large amounts without physical hunger; eating alone because of embarrassment; or feeling disgusted with oneself, depressed, or very guilty afterward. The binge eating occurs on average at least once per week for three months. It is not associated with recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior such as in bulimia nervosa, and it does not occur exclusively during bulimia nervosa or anorexia nervosa. These formal criteria require interpretation by a qualified clinician.

The DSM-5-TR severity specifier uses the frequency of binge episodes per week: mild, moderate, severe, or extreme. This is a diagnostic specifier about episode frequency. It is not a substitute for assessing physical health, psychiatric risk, functional impairment, suicidality, trauma history, or social circumstances. A person meeting fewer episodes than the formal threshold can still have clinically important symptoms and may receive another appropriate formulation or diagnosis.

ICD-11 uses a related but not identical diagnostic framework. For international readers, the safest approach is to establish which classification a clinician is applying and to avoid translating one system's numerical threshold mechanically into the other. In every system, distress, loss of control, frequency, impairment, and differentials matter.

What happens at the first assessment?

An eating-disorder clinician may ask about the history of episodes, subjective loss of control, usual eating routines, past or current restriction, compensatory behavior, psychological distress, family and medical history, medications, sleep, physical symptoms, and the effects on relationships or work. A medical professional may evaluate blood pressure, pulse, recent health changes, and other findings, ordering laboratory tests when clinically indicated. The goal is to understand both the eating disorder and any medical or psychiatric needs. APA clinical assessment.

The clinician also explores whether there is a pattern of purging, severe food restriction, driven exercise, other behaviors intended to compensate for intake, or fear of weight gain. Asking directly is important because shame or the wish to avoid judgment can hide these symptoms. The evaluation should be respectful, nonstigmatizing, and appropriate for the person's age and circumstances.

Is there an online test for BED?

Several questionnaires measure binge-eating symptoms, loss of control, or eating-disorder psychopathology. They can indicate that assessment is appropriate and can help track change over time. No score by itself can establish BED, exclude it, determine medical stability, or choose a treatment. A comprehensive interview remains the diagnostic foundation.

BED vs. Overeating, Emotional Eating, and Bulimia

Ordinary overeating describes eating more than desired, expected, or physically comfortable. A single episode after celebration or a stressful day can be unpleasant without meeting BED criteria. In BED, recurrent episodes include both an unusually large amount of food in context and loss of control, with marked distress and the necessary overall pattern.

Emotional eating describes eating influenced by sadness, loneliness, anger, excitement, anxiety, boredom, or another emotional state. It can involve normal intake, snacks, or episodes of overeating. Some people with BED use food to regulate difficult emotions, but an emotional trigger is neither necessary nor sufficient for BED. The distinction protects against pathologizing everyday coping while making room for treatment when loss of control becomes recurrent.

Bulimia nervosa also involves recurrent binge episodes, but is distinguished by recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting, laxative misuse, fasting, or driven exercise and by the relevant diagnostic context. Someone who reports both loss-of-control eating and compensation requires careful evaluation for bulimia nervosa or another eating disorder rather than a BED label based on bingeing alone. NIMH diagnostic descriptions; APA guideline.

Anorexia nervosa involves restrictive intake leading to significantly low body weight in the relevant developmental and health context, together with other defining features. Some individuals with anorexia nervosa also experience binge-eating or purging episodes. Atypical anorexia within OSFED can include medically significant restriction and weight loss without the low-weight threshold associated with anorexia nervosa. These possibilities must be considered when restriction is prominent.

ARFID centers on restrictive or avoidant eating related to limited interest, sensory characteristics, or feared aversive consequences, with significant nutritional or functional consequences. It is distinct from recurrent objectively large loss-of-control binges. Pica and rumination disorder have different defining behaviors. Proposed concepts such as orthorexia should not replace established diagnostic assessment.

A person can also have eating concerns alongside OCD, anxiety, depression, substance-use disorders, or ADHD. Rituals involving food may be driven by different mechanisms; our published clinical comparison of OCD and eating disorders explains how a clinician distinguishes their functions.

Why Does Binge Eating Disorder Develop?

BED develops through interacting vulnerabilities and maintaining conditions rather than one universal cause. Research implicates genetic and familial influences, individual psychological processes, environmental conditions, and social experiences. Depression, anxiety, shame, critical comments about weight or eating, and stressful experiences may be associated with symptoms, although an association does not prove that any one factor caused a person's disorder. NIDDK review of causes.

For some individuals, restrictive or irregular eating contributes to cycles of intense hunger, preoccupation with food, and subsequent loss of control. This is one reason treatment commonly addresses regular, adequate eating and helps loosen rigid or punitive food rules. Restrictive behavior can arise from dieting, scarcity, illness, work routines, or previous eating-disorder symptoms; its meaning is assessed in the person's circumstances. NICE treatment recommendations.

Emotional distress can also increase vulnerability. Eating may briefly distract from distress or provide a predictable sensation of comfort, while guilt, self-criticism, or social withdrawal after an episode may intensify future difficulties. This can become a self-reinforcing pattern for some patients, but it is a clinical formulation, not a diagnosis of emotional dysregulation. Research on temperament or personality is likewise probabilistic. For the limitations of broad personality explanations, see Neuroticism and Eating Disorders.

Learning and reward processes help explain why cues, routines, expectations, and food environments can become relevant to eating behavior. These mechanisms occur in everyday eating as well as clinical conditions. They do not establish an addiction diagnosis. Food Addiction and Sugar: Where the Concepts Overlap and Differ examines that research boundary separately.

Trauma, interpersonal conflict, social marginalization, food insecurity, and weight stigma may shape individual risk or treatment access. Their presence is not required for BED, and many people exposed to such experiences do not develop the disorder. Good clinical care investigates the factors that matter for the individual without assigning blame to patients or families.

Who Can Develop Binge Eating Disorder?

BED is diagnosed in adolescents and adults, across sexes, gender identities, socioeconomic groups, racial and ethnic backgrounds, and body sizes. Population estimates vary by country, time period, diagnostic system, interview methodology, and sampling. In a nationally representative US adult analysis, Udo and Grilo reported a lifetime BED prevalence of approximately 0.85% using DSM-5 criteria. This is a study-specific estimate, not a personal probability or a universal prevalence figure. Udo and Grilo, 2018.

People may experience barriers to diagnosis when their symptoms do not match the stereotype of an eating-disorder patient. Men, people in larger bodies, adolescents, and members of marginalized groups may find it difficult to have binge eating recognized as a mental-health concern rather than framed exclusively as a matter of discipline or weight.

At younger ages, eating patterns must be considered in the context of growth, developmental changes, family circumstances, and the difficulty of describing subjective loss of control. A qualified pediatric or adolescent eating-disorder specialist can distinguish clinically meaningful patterns from ordinary developmental variation. The adult medication evidence should not be assumed to apply automatically to children.

Physical and Mental Health Effects

BED can disrupt social functioning, emotional well-being, and everyday life. Associated difficulties may include shame, social avoidance, depressive or anxiety symptoms, sleep problems, and gastrointestinal complaints. Some people also experience conditions such as type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, or cardiovascular risk, particularly where weight-related or metabolic factors coexist. Association must be interpreted carefully because medical risk is influenced by many factors and cannot be attributed to binge episodes alone. NIDDK health and population overview.

The medical risks of BED differ from the patterns most associated with starvation, severe purging, or acute malnutrition in some other eating disorders. Nevertheless, a person with BED can also have significant restriction, inadequate nutrition, concurrent medical disease, or symptoms that warrant physical assessment. BMI does not determine whether professional evaluation is appropriate. APA evaluation guidance.

Mental-health risk deserves attention. Depression, anxiety, substance-use concerns, and self-harm or suicidal thoughts can coexist with an eating disorder. If a person is in immediate danger, has severe chest pain, faints, has confusion or severe dehydration, or is considering acting on suicidal thoughts, urgent local emergency assessment is appropriate. US readers can call 911 for medical emergencies and call or text 988 for a mental-health crisis. Other countries use their own local emergency and crisis systems.

Evidence-Based Treatment for Binge Eating Disorder

Evidence-based care targets the recurrent loss of control, distress, maintaining eating patterns, psychological suffering, and related health needs. Treatment is individualized according to diagnosis, age, patient preference, comorbidity, previous care, and access to specialists. The APA guideline recommends eating-disorder-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) for BED, in individual or group formats. NICE NG69 recommends a staged psychological approach for adults, beginning with BED-focused guided self-help where suitable.

Cognitive behavioral therapy for BED

Eating-disorder-focused CBT examines how eating patterns, restrictive rules, situational triggers, interpretations, and emotional responses interact. The clinician and patient develop a shared formulation of the problem, establish more regular eating, examine rigid thinking, identify maintaining cycles, and practice responses to difficult moments. When body-image concerns participate in the problem, therapy can address them without making body weight the defining measure of success.

A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis of 42 randomized controlled trials across bulimia nervosa and BED found CBT outperformed waitlist controls for remission and binge-frequency outcomes. Effects were smaller or uncertain against more active comparators such as self-help, demonstrating why claims about the superiority of one format must name the comparator and outcome. These pooled results do not establish the same effect size for every patient or for BED alone. 2026 CBT systematic review.

Guided self-help

Guided self-help is a structured, BED-focused program using evidence-informed CBT materials together with support from a trained professional. It is distinct from arbitrary dieting advice or an unsupervised list of motivational tips. NICE recommends offering this approach to adults with BED, with escalation to group or individual CBT-ED when guided self-help is unacceptable, unsuitable, or not working. Some patients need specialist treatment from the outset. NICE recommendations 1.4.2–1.4.7.

Interpersonal psychotherapy

Interpersonal psychotherapy explores how relationship difficulties, interpersonal transitions, grief, role disputes, and social processes relate to current eating-disorder symptoms. Treatment can address these mechanisms while working toward sustained improvement in eating. APA recommends IPT as an established treatment option for BED alongside CBT. A treatment decision should reflect the patient's situation and the clinician's expertise, not an assumed hierarchy that every study supports. APA practice guideline.

Dialectical behavior therapy and other approaches

Skills-oriented treatments, including approaches informed by dialectical behavior therapy, may be useful when emotion regulation or behavioral coping difficulties are prominent. Their evidence base and clinical role should be distinguished from the core guideline recommendations for BED-focused CBT and IPT. Supportive counseling, mindfulness practices, and nutritional education may complement comprehensive care but should not be presented as proven substitutes for a structured evidence-based treatment when BED symptoms remain clinically significant.

Nutritional support and sustainable eating

An appropriately trained registered dietitian may help the person establish adequate, regular eating, navigate food fears or rigid rules, and coordinate with psychotherapy and medical care. The aim is to rebuild dependable eating rather than impose a cycle of punishment after an episode. NICE specifically warns against pursuing weight-loss dieting during BED treatment when doing so may trigger binge eating. For adults with relevant medical conditions, any weight-management decisions should be individualized and coordinated with the eating-disorder treatment team. NICE treatment guidance; NIDDK individualized care.

Medication for Binge Eating Disorder

Lisdexamfetamine is FDA-approved for moderate to severe BED in adults in the United States. It is a prescription stimulant requiring individual medical assessment, including cardiovascular factors, psychiatric history, current medications, and potential for misuse. The FDA highlights a boxed warning about abuse and dependence for lisdexamfetamine products. It is not a self-directed appetite-control tool, and its approval for adult BED should not be interpreted as permission to use it for weight loss or for adolescents without a separate clinical basis. FDA safety information.

The APA guideline suggests that adults who prefer medication or who have not responded adequately to psychotherapy alone may be considered for an antidepressant or lisdexamfetamine after individualized assessment. This is a conditional recommendation. NICE explicitly advises against medication as the sole treatment of BED, emphasizing psychological treatment. Recommendations reflect different health systems and evidence appraisals, while both require a clinical plan. APA guideline; NICE NG69.

A 2025 systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized drug trials in adults with BED reported reductions in binge outcomes for several medications, including lisdexamfetamine and topiramate, but also documented adverse events and significant limitations in trial quality and outcome standardization. Topiramate is not an FDA-approved BED treatment; adverse-effect profiles and potential pregnancy-related risks require particular caution. Comparative trial rankings do not by themselves determine the best medication for an individual. Costa and colleagues, 2025.

Medications sometimes prescribed for other conditions, including certain antidepressants or metabolic treatments, should be evaluated for their own indications and emerging BED evidence. Claims about GLP-1 receptor agonists as direct BED treatments remain distinct from their established use in indicated metabolic conditions; evidence for sustained psychiatric BED outcomes is still developing. Medication changes require a prescriber familiar with the person's full medical and psychiatric history.

Is Weight Loss the Goal of BED Treatment?

The primary purpose of BED treatment is to reduce or stop binge episodes, improve eating-related distress, restore functioning, and support psychological and physical health. NICE notes that psychological treatments aimed at BED have limited effects on body weight and that weight loss is not a treatment target in itself. This clarifies both clinical expectations and the outcomes by which treatment should be judged. NICE guideline.

Some people have co-occurring medical conditions for which weight-related care is relevant. Such care deserves independent assessment, careful discussion of risks and benefits, and coordination so that restrictive dieting does not reactivate a binge-restriction cycle. Others have no medical reason to focus on weight. The decision belongs in individualized healthcare, with attention to medical stability and the person's preferences.

Weight alone is also a poor recovery measure. A patient may have less binge eating and better social functioning without a substantial weight change, while someone whose weight changes may still have considerable loss of control and distress. Clinical follow-up therefore measures symptoms, well-being, functioning, and relevant medical indicators.

What Does Recovery Look Like?

Recovery is a process of decreasing binge frequency and loss of control, improving confidence around food, reducing shame and avoidance, and regaining flexibility in daily life. Some people improve rapidly with structured treatment; others experience a longer course with fluctuations, interruptions, or recurrence. A systematic review of eating-disorder outcomes emphasizes that recovery, improvement, relapse, and follow-up definitions vary across studies, complicating comparisons between treatment programs and disorders. Solmi and colleagues, 2024.

A recovery plan may include recognizing early warning signs, maintaining adequate meals and snacks, sustaining supportive routines, addressing co-occurring depression or anxiety, and deciding when to reconnect with a clinician. A return of symptoms after improvement is an opportunity to reassess treatment needs rather than evidence of personal failure.

People close to the patient can help by listening without moralizing about food, avoiding comments that equate health with body size, supporting access to appointments, and asking which practical forms of support the patient prefers. With children and adolescents, caregivers and pediatric specialists should coordinate developmentally appropriate care.

How to Get Help for BED

A sensible first step is an appointment with a primary care clinician, psychiatrist, psychologist, or eating-disorder service. Describe the episodes in your own words: whether you experience loss of control, how long the problem has lasted, how distressed you feel, and whether there are restrictions, compensation, mood symptoms, or medical concerns. You do not need to establish your own diagnosis before requesting an evaluation.

Ask whether the provider has experience with eating disorders, which evidence-based treatments are available, how medical health is assessed, and whether a registered dietitian or other professional should participate. Where access is limited, clinician-supported CBT self-help may be worth discussing; generic weight-loss programs do not replace eating-disorder assessment.

If you are supporting another person, begin with what you have noticed and your concern for their well-being. Offer help finding an appropriate clinician, avoid surveillance or shaming around meals, and recognize that a person's consent, privacy, and sense of agency matter. For young people, appropriate parent or caregiver involvement depends on age and clinical context.

Common Questions About Binge Eating Disorder

Can you have BED if you only binge occasionally?

Occasional overeating or even an isolated loss-of-control episode does not establish the full diagnosis. However, episodes below the formal frequency or duration threshold can still be distressing and deserve help. Clinicians may assess other eating-disorder diagnoses, symptoms, and relevant medical or psychological needs.

Is BED the same thing as food addiction?

No. BED is a recognized diagnosis with defined criteria. Food addiction is a research construct and popular phrase that may overlap with features such as cravings or impaired control but is not equivalent to BED. Our evidence review of food addiction and sugar explains the distinctions.

Does every BED episode happen because of hunger or emotion?

No. Episodes have diverse contexts; hunger, irregular eating, distress, habits, social situations, and environmental cues can matter differently from person to person. The diagnostic hallmark is recurrent binge eating with loss of control and associated distress, not a single required trigger.

Can a person with BED be thin or average weight?

Yes. The diagnosis is based on recurrent binge episodes and the associated clinical criteria. It is not confirmed or ruled out by BMI, clothing size, appearance, or a history of weight change. NIDDK definition and facts.

Is BED caused by a lack of willpower?

BED is a recognized mental disorder with interacting biological, psychological, and environmental influences. Character judgments do not explain the clinical syndrome or direct evidence-based treatment. The appropriate response is careful assessment and practical, supported care. NIDDK causes.

Should someone fast or skip meals after binge eating?

Compensatory restriction may reinforce problematic cycles for some patients and deserves assessment, particularly when it is repetitive or severe. BED-focused care commonly establishes regular eating and addresses rigid rules; a clinician or eating-disorder dietitian can individualize the plan. NICE guidance.

Can teenagers have BED?

Yes. Young people can experience clinically significant binge eating. Developmental context, growth, family circumstances, and co-occurring symptoms all matter. Specialist assessment is important, and findings from adult medication trials cannot automatically be transferred to children or adolescents.

Is BED curable, and can it return?

Substantial improvement and recovery are possible with appropriate care. The course varies; some people experience recurrence and benefit from renewed treatment or follow-up. Long-term outcome studies use inconsistent definitions, so universal promises about timing or permanent remission are not scientifically justified. Solmi et al., 2024.

Can BED and depression or anxiety occur together?

Yes. Eating-disorder assessment includes co-occurring psychiatric conditions because they can affect distress, treatment engagement, and safety. A clinician determines whether conditions are independent, interacting, or better explained by another problem. APA guideline.

Which professional diagnoses binge eating disorder?

Psychiatrists, appropriately trained psychologists, and other qualified licensed clinicians can assess BED within their scope of practice. Primary care clinicians frequently initiate the evaluation and coordinate medical care. Registered dietitians with eating-disorder experience support nutrition care but their diagnostic scope depends on jurisdiction and professional credentials.

Related Articles

OCD vs Eating Disorders: Food Rules, Rituals, Body Concerns, and Obsessions — distinguishing food-related obsessions and compulsions from eating-disorder symptoms.

Neuroticism and Eating Disorders: Trait Associations and Clinical Limits — separating personality correlates from clinical diagnosis.

Food Addiction and Sugar: Where the Concepts Overlap and Differ — understanding a contested construct without confusing it with BED.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2023). The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.23180001.

Costa, G. P. A., Assunção, B. R., Belfort-DeAguiar, R., & Nunes, J. C. (2025). Pharmacotherapies for binge eating disorder: Systematic review and network meta-analysis. Obesity Reviews, 26(9), e13936. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13936.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2017; updated 2020). Eating disorders: Recognition and treatment (NG69), section 1.4. Clinical recommendations.

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2021). Binge eating disorder: Definition and facts. Official clinical information.

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2021). Diagnosis and treatment of binge eating disorder. Official clinical information.

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2021). Symptoms and causes of binge eating disorder. Official clinical information.

National Institute of Mental Health. (2025). Eating disorders: What you need to know. Official patient education.

Sioziou, A. L., Stefanou, A., Dimitrakopoulou, F., et al. (2026). Cognitive behavioural therapy compared to control conditions in treating bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.70070.

Solmi, M., et al. (2024). Outcomes in people with eating disorders: A transdiagnostic and disorder-specific systematic review, meta-analysis and multivariable meta-regression analysis. World Psychiatry, 23, 124–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.21182.

Udo, T., & Grilo, C. M. (2018). Prevalence and correlates of DSM-5-defined eating disorders in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. Biological Psychiatry, 84, 345–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.03.014.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2024). FDA approves multiple generics of ADHD and BED treatment: Safety information. FDA announcement.