BFI-2 Negative Emotionality: How It Relates to Neuroticism
Author: Ukrainian Psychological Hub · Published: September 30, 2026 · Editorial Policy
In the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2), Negative Emotionality is the name of one of the five broad personality domains. It occupies much of the same conceptual territory that many other Big Five and Five-Factor Model instruments call neuroticism, but the terms are not a license to transfer scores, facet structures, cutoffs, or norms from one questionnaire to another. The BFI-2 is a specific 60-item instrument with its own domain and facet scales, scoring key, validation evidence, and abbreviated forms.
The BFI-2 Negative Emotionality domain is built from three facets: Anxiety, Depression, and Emotional Volatility. In the standard 60-item form, 12 items contribute to the broad domain and four items contribute to each facet. The official self-report form uses a five-point response scale and a mixture of positively and reverse-keyed items; the authors' official BFI-2 form and scoring key documents the item assignments and reverse-keyed items.
A BFI-2 Negative Emotionality score is a dimensional personality score. It is not a psychiatric diagnosis, a symptom screening result, or a universal measure of how mentally healthy someone is. Facet names such as Anxiety and Depression describe personality tendencies within this instrument; they do not mean that a person has an anxiety disorder or depressive disorder. Interpretation depends on the exact BFI-2 form, language or adaptation, scoring procedure, comparison sample, and purpose of assessment.
BFI-2 Negative Emotionality: The Short Answer
BFI-2 Negative Emotionality is the BFI-2's broad measure of stable individual differences in tendencies toward distress-prone emotional experience. People with higher scores tend, on average, to report more worry or tension, more tendencies toward sadness or discouragement, and greater emotional volatility. People with lower scores tend, on average, to report less of those tendencies and are often described in broader Big Five language as more emotionally stable.
The relation to neuroticism is therefore close but instrument-specific. The BFI-2 authors developed and validated Negative Emotionality as the BFI-2 representation of this Big Five domain. Their original validation paper describes the inventory's hierarchical five-domain, 15-facet structure and reports evidence for reliability, validity, control of acquiescent responding, and predictive utility; see Soto and John (2017).
For the broader construct outside this particular instrument, see Neuroticism: What It Is in the Big Five Personality Model. This page stays with the BFI-2 measurement question: what Negative Emotionality means in that instrument, how it is scored and interpreted, and where equivalence with neuroticism stops.
What the Big Five Inventory-2 Measures
The BFI-2 is a major revision of the original Big Five Inventory. Its full self-report form contains 60 items and assesses five broad domains: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Negative Emotionality, and Open-Mindedness. Each domain contains three more specific facets, yielding 15 facets in all. This hierarchy was designed to preserve a relatively brief questionnaire while increasing the amount of interpretable detail available below each broad domain.
The BFI-2 is a normal-range personality inventory. Its questions ask respondents to rate how well personality descriptions apply to them. The response scale in the official English form runs from 1 to 5, from strong disagreement through a neutral midpoint to strong agreement. The design deliberately includes both keyed and reverse-keyed content. In the original research, this balance was part of the strategy for reducing the influence of acquiescent response tendencies, meaning a person's general tendency to agree with statements regardless of their content.
This structure matters for interpretation. A result labeled Negative Emotionality is not simply a count of negative feelings. It is a composite produced by a defined set of BFI-2 items after the instrument's scoring key is applied. The resulting score summarizes a personality domain as operationalized by this questionnaire.
Why the BFI-2 Uses the Label Negative Emotionality
The broad Big Five domain has long been labeled Neuroticism in many personality models. The BFI-2 instead uses Negative Emotionality. The change makes the content of the domain more transparent and avoids some of the historical and everyday baggage attached to the word neurotic. The measurement target remains closely aligned with the broad neuroticism domain, while the name signals the BFI-2's own operationalization.
The important point is that a construct label and a test score are different levels of description. Neuroticism is a broad personality-science construct that can be measured in several ways. BFI-2 Negative Emotionality is one measurement model for that territory. A NEO inventory, an IPIP measure, an Eysenck scale, or another Big Five instrument may produce a score that correlates strongly with BFI-2 Negative Emotionality while using different items, facets, score ranges, norms, and psychometric assumptions.
That is why the safest wording is: BFI-2 Negative Emotionality is the BFI-2's measure of the broad Big Five domain commonly called neuroticism. It should not be described as if every neuroticism scale were literally the same test under a different name.
How BFI-2 Negative Emotionality Relates to Neuroticism
Shared Big Five Territory
At the broad-domain level, the overlap is substantial. Both constructs describe relatively enduring individual differences in proneness to negative emotional experience and distress. This shared territory is why researchers sometimes refer to a BFI-2 Negative Emotionality score as a measure of neuroticism, especially when comparing findings across Big Five instruments.
The BFI-2's own validation work supported convergent relations with other personality measures while preserving discriminant relations with the other Big Five domains. Replication work in other languages has also found strong convergence between BFI-2 Negative Emotionality and alternative neuroticism measures. For example, a Dutch validation reported substantial convergence with an IPIP neuroticism scale while also emphasizing that the instruments' labels and definitions are not identical; see Denissen et al. (2020).
Instrument-Specific Operationalization
The BFI-2 defines Negative Emotionality through three facets: Anxiety, Depression, and Emotional Volatility. Other instruments carve the broad domain differently. The NEO PI-R, for example, uses a six-facet Neuroticism domain, while some IPIP instruments reproduce that six-facet structure with different item pools. Eysenck measures come from a different personality-model tradition again.
This means two people can have related standing on broad neuroticism constructs while receiving numerically incomparable scores across instruments. A BFI-2 value of 3.7 does not convert into a NEO T score, an IPIP raw score, or an Eysenck score through a universal formula. Cross-instrument comparison requires actual psychometric calibration or a study that administered the relevant measures to the same population.
The Three Negative Emotionality Facets
The three BFI-2 facets let researchers and readers look beneath the broad domain. They were selected to capture distinguishable components of negative emotionality while remaining nested within a single higher-order domain. The original BFI-2 development paper explains why Anxiety, Depression, and Emotional Volatility were chosen as the three facets of this domain.
Anxiety
The Anxiety facet represents a dispositional tendency toward worry, tension, fearfulness, and feeling less secure under threat or uncertainty. It is a personality facet, not a diagnosis. Someone may score relatively high on this facet without meeting criteria for generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, or any other anxiety condition. Conversely, a person can have a diagnosable anxiety disorder even if a broad personality inventory does not place them at an extreme on this facet.
Depression
The Depression facet represents a dispositional tendency toward sadness, discouragement, and lower emotional buoyancy. The word Depression here is a facet label inside a personality inventory. It is not the same thing as a depressive episode, a depression screening score, or a clinical diagnosis. Clinical depression requires condition-specific assessment of symptoms, duration, impairment, context, and other diagnostic considerations.
Emotional Volatility
The Emotional Volatility facet represents a tendency toward greater emotional fluctuation, irritability, or being more easily upset. This facet gives the BFI-2 broad domain sensitivity to the reactive and temperamental side of negative emotionality that would be missed if the domain were reduced to anxiety and sadness alone.
A broad Negative Emotionality score can therefore hide different facet profiles. Two people can have similar domain scores while differing meaningfully in which facet contributes most. The dedicated cluster article Neuroticism Facets: Anxiety, Anger, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, and Vulnerability explains a different six-facet neuroticism tradition; it is useful precisely because it shows why facet models should not be merged as though they were interchangeable.
How Standard BFI-2 Negative Emotionality Is Scored
In the standard 60-item BFI-2, Negative Emotionality is represented by 12 items. Those items are divided evenly across the three facets, with four items per facet. The official scoring key marks which items are reverse-keyed. Before combining item responses, reverse-keyed items must be placed in the same substantive direction as the positively keyed items.
Reverse-Keying on the 1-to-5 Response Scale
With the standard 1-to-5 response format, reversing a response changes 1 to 5, 2 to 4, leaves 3 unchanged, changes 4 to 2, and changes 5 to 1. Mathematically, this is equivalent to 6 minus the original response. The purpose is not to label some answers as wrong. It is to make differently worded items point in a common scoring direction.
The official form should remain the source of truth for which items are reverse-keyed. Copying a scoring key from an unofficial personality-test website creates avoidable risk because item numbering, translations, short forms, and scoring conventions can be mixed up. The official BFI-2 form includes both the self-report questionnaire and the scoring key.
Domain Scores and Facet Scores
A domain score aggregates information across all 12 Negative Emotionality items after keying. Each facet score aggregates its own four items. Researchers may report means, sums, standardized scores, or other derived metrics depending on the study protocol. Those metrics are not automatically equivalent. A mean on a 1-to-5 item scale is convenient for interpretation, but a mean of 3.6 is not a universal percentile and does not carry a clinical threshold.
The broad domain generally has greater measurement precision than any four-item facet because it pools more observations. This is especially important for individual-level interpretation. In a Norwegian adaptation, domain scores showed strong psychometric performance, while the authors specifically cautioned that facet scores can have enough measurement error to make individual assessment imprecise; see Føllesdal and Soto (2022). That warning should travel with facet interpretation even when a particular sample reports respectable internal consistency.
Missing Responses and Response Quality
Missing answers, patterned responding, random responding, and inattentive responding can all affect a self-report score. A scoring workflow should therefore state how missing items are handled and whether response-quality checks were used. Recent work developed a BFI-2-specific inconsistent responding procedure and showed that careless or random responding can degrade data quality; see Ruchensky, Edens, and Donnellan (2025). That research does not turn the BFI-2 into a lie detector. It highlights that score validity depends partly on the quality of the response process.
What Does a High BFI-2 Negative Emotionality Score Mean?
A higher score indicates stronger endorsement of the BFI-2 tendencies that define Negative Emotionality after reverse-keying and aggregation. In broad terms, it means the respondent describes themselves as more prone to anxiety-related feelings, sadness or discouragement, and emotional volatility than someone with a lower score on the same measurement scale.
The word higher is always relative to a score metric. If a report gives only a raw sum or a 1-to-5 mean, interpretation should remain descriptive unless a suitable reference distribution is available. A percentile, z score, T score, or categorical label such as high or low requires a specific normative or reference sample. Age, country, language, recruitment method, and population can all affect the distribution used for comparison.
A high score is not a diagnosis and is not evidence that a person is emotionally unstable in every situation. Personality scores summarize typical self-described tendencies. They do not erase context, coping skills, relationships, culture, current stress, or the many situations in which a person may respond differently from their average pattern.
What Does a Low BFI-2 Negative Emotionality Score Mean?
A lower score indicates less endorsement of the BFI-2 tendencies that define Negative Emotionality. In broader Big Five language, the low pole is often described as greater emotional stability. People lower on the dimension tend, on average, to report less frequent or less intense negative emotional reactivity.
Low Negative Emotionality does not mean an absence of emotion, immunity to stress, unusually good mental health, or superior coping in every context. A low-scoring person can still experience grief, panic, depression, trauma reactions, anger, or severe distress. The trait describes a distribution of tendencies, not a protective certificate.
The relation between the two labels is discussed directly in Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability: Two Ends of the Same Big Five Dimension?. The key measurement point is that some instruments score the high-negative-emotionality pole while others emphasize the reverse, emotionally stable pole. Always check score direction before comparing results.
Why There Is No Universal BFI-2 Cutoff for “High” Negative Emotionality
The BFI-2 was developed as a dimensional personality measure, not a diagnostic test with a medical threshold. A raw score or mean therefore does not become clinically meaningful merely because it looks numerically high. To call a score high in a psychometric sense, a report needs a defined comparison distribution or other explicit rule.
A percentile is meaningful only relative to the normative sample that generated it. The 80th percentile in one national, age, occupational, student, or convenience sample need not equal the 80th percentile in another. Likewise, a translated BFI-2 version should not silently borrow English-language norms unless equivalence and norm transfer have actually been established for the intended use.
This is why statements such as “a score above 40 means high neuroticism” are unsafe without specifying the exact instrument, number of items, response range, scoring method, missing-data rules, and norm group. BFI-2 results should be interpreted in BFI-2 terms.
BFI-2 Negative Emotionality Is Not a Diagnosis or Screening Result
The BFI-2 measures personality traits. It was not designed to diagnose generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, bipolar disorder, personality disorders, ADHD, autism, psychosis, or any other clinical condition. A person can have high Negative Emotionality without a psychiatric disorder, and a person with a psychiatric disorder can score anywhere on a broad personality trait depending on the condition, current state, measurement error, and individual profile.
The Anxiety and Depression facet labels are especially easy to misread. In the BFI-2 they are trait-facet names, not symptom counts. A clinical anxiety or depression questionnaire usually asks about condition-specific symptoms over a defined time window and is validated for screening or severity estimation. The BFI-2 asks about broader personality tendencies and does not substitute for that clinical purpose.
This distinction also protects against a second error: interpreting treatment-related symptom changes as proof that a person's stable personality has changed by the same amount. State distress, psychiatric symptoms, and personality measures can move together, but they are conceptually and psychometrically distinct.
BFI-2 Negative Emotionality vs Other Neuroticism Measures
The broad domain belongs to the same family of constructs measured by NEO, IPIP, Eysenck, and other Big Five or Five-Factor instruments, but cross-test equivalence must be demonstrated rather than assumed.
BFI-2 vs NEO PI-R and NEO-FFI
The BFI-2 uses three Negative Emotionality facets and a 60-item total inventory. The NEO PI-R uses a different item pool and a six-facet Neuroticism domain; the NEO-FFI is a shorter five-domain inventory with its own scoring and norms. A BFI-2 Negative Emotionality mean cannot be translated into a NEO score by relabeling it. Even when broad-domain correlations are strong, facet content and score metrics differ.
BFI-2 vs IPIP Measures
IPIP is an item-pool framework from which multiple public-domain personality scales have been constructed. An IPIP neuroticism scale may be short or long and may target broad neuroticism or a particular facet hierarchy. The specific IPIP instrument must therefore be named before a score can be interpreted. Validation work comparing BFI-2 with IPIP measures supports substantial convergent validity while leaving both measures distinct.
BFI-2 vs Eysenck Neuroticism
Eysenck's model comes from a different historical measurement tradition. Its Neuroticism dimension overlaps with the broad tendency toward emotional instability and distress but is embedded in a different model and questionnaire family. Cross-study comparisons should state which Eysenck measure was used rather than treating the word neuroticism as sufficient instrument identification.
The practical rule is simple: never report “neuroticism score” when you can report the instrument and scale. “BFI-2 Negative Emotionality, full 60-item form” is far more interpretable than an unlabeled number.
Negative Emotionality vs Emotional Stability, Negative Affect, and Anxiety
Negative Emotionality vs Emotional Stability
Within Big Five language, emotional stability generally describes the opposite pole of neuroticism or negative emotionality. The concepts are inversely related, but a particular instrument can choose which pole to name and which direction to score. Before saying that one score is the reverse of another, verify that both measures actually assess the same domain and use compatible scoring.
Negative Emotionality vs Negative Affect
Negative affect is a broader affective-science term that can refer to current emotional state, recent emotional experience, or a dispositional tendency, depending on the instrument and time frame. BFI-2 Negative Emotionality is specifically a personality domain. The two can correlate strongly while still differing in what the questionnaire asks the respondent to summarize.
Negative Emotionality vs Anxiety and Trait Anxiety
Anxiety is one component of BFI-2 Negative Emotionality, not the entire domain. Trait-anxiety instruments are narrower measures centered on anxiety proneness. BFI-2 Negative Emotionality also includes depression-related and volatility-related tendencies. A high BFI-2 Anxiety facet score still does not diagnose an anxiety disorder.
Psychometric Evidence for the BFI-2
The original BFI-2 development program used multiple studies to define the hierarchy, construct the item scales, and test reliability, structural validity, convergent and discriminant relations, peer-report associations, and prediction. The resulting 60-item inventory was designed to improve facet coverage while preserving the practical advantages of the original BFI. The primary source remains Soto and John (2017).
Subsequent work has replicated important aspects of the structure and validity in other languages. A Dutch adaptation replicated the broad structure and found evidence that facets could add discriminant predictive information for particular criteria; see Denissen et al. (2020). A Norwegian adaptation reported reliable and valid domain scores and supported the proposed model while also stressing the lower precision of short facet scales for individual use; see Føllesdal and Soto (2022).
A Spanish adaptation evaluated structural validity, gender invariance, temporal stability, and the full and abbreviated forms across three studies totaling more than 1,600 participants; see Gallardo-Pujol et al. (2022). A Japanese validation likewise examined the translated instrument's structure and measurement properties; see Yoshino et al. (2022). These findings support the BFI-2's international research usefulness while also showing why adaptation-specific evidence matters.
Cross-language validation does not mean every translation is interchangeable without qualification. Measurement invariance is an empirical property to be tested in particular samples and comparison groups. Norms also remain population-specific. A validated translation can support meaningful use without creating a universal global cutoff.
Full BFI-2, BFI-2-S, or BFI-2-XS?
The full BFI-2 contains 60 items. The BFI-2-S contains 30 items, and the BFI-2-XS contains 15. The short-form development paper found that both abbreviated forms retained substantial information about the five broad domains, while measurement efficiency came with predictable losses in reliability and validity; see Soto and John (2017), Short and extra-short forms.
For Negative Emotionality, the choice of form changes how much information is available. The full form has 12 domain items and four items per facet. The 30-item BFI-2-S reduces the number of items but can still support facet research in sufficiently large samples. The 15-item BFI-2-XS is intended for efficient broad-domain assessment and should not be used as if it provided dependable three-facet scores. The original short-form study explicitly advises against using the extra-short form for facet assessment.
When a report merely says “BFI-2,” ask which form. A 60-item full-form score, a 30-item short-form score, and a 15-item extra-short score differ in item count and precision even when they target the same broad domain.
How to Interpret a BFI-2 Negative Emotionality Result Responsibly
Start with instrument identification. Confirm whether the result comes from the full BFI-2, BFI-2-S, or BFI-2-XS, and identify the language version or adaptation. Then confirm score direction, reverse-keying, and the rule used to combine items. If a percentile or standardized score is reported, identify the reference sample and whether it is appropriate for the respondent's population.
Next, separate the broad domain from the facets. The domain is the more reliable summary of Negative Emotionality. Facets can add useful descriptive detail, especially in research, but their smaller item counts mean greater uncertainty. A difference between facet scores should not be treated as psychologically profound unless it is large enough and the measurement precision supports that interpretation.
Finally, match the conclusion to the instrument's purpose. The BFI-2 can support personality description and research. It can contribute to a broader psychological assessment when used by someone who understands its measurement properties. It cannot by itself explain why a person feels distressed, diagnose a disorder, determine treatment, predict a person's behavior in every situation, or establish a biological cause.
Common Interpretation Errors
One common error is equating the word Negative Emotionality with momentary negativity. The BFI-2 asks about personality tendencies, so the construct is broader and more enduring than a bad day or a temporary stress reaction.
A second error is interpreting the Depression facet as a depression screen. The facet is part of a normal personality inventory and does not assess the complete clinical syndrome, duration, impairment, or differential diagnosis required for psychiatric interpretation.
A third error is comparing numbers across tests. A BFI-2 domain mean, a NEO T score, and an IPIP raw score can all represent related personality information while remaining on different metrics.
A fourth error is treating a percentile as a permanent personal rank. Percentiles depend on the norm group and can change if the reference population changes. Measurement error also means that any observed score is an estimate rather than a perfectly precise location on a latent trait.
A fifth error is assuming that a high score must be reduced. Personality traits are dimensions, not diseases. Whether a person wants to change patterns related to stress reactivity, worry, or emotional regulation is a separate practical question from whether their BFI-2 score is statistically high.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is BFI-2 Negative Emotionality the same as neuroticism?
It is the BFI-2's measure of the broad Big Five domain commonly called neuroticism, so the overlap is strong. The scores are not universally interchangeable with neuroticism scores from other instruments because item content, facet structure, score metrics, and norms differ.
What are the three BFI-2 Negative Emotionality facets?
The full BFI-2 uses Anxiety, Depression, and Emotional Volatility. Each facet is represented by four items in the 60-item form.
How many BFI-2 items measure Negative Emotionality?
In the standard 60-item BFI-2, 12 items contribute to the Negative Emotionality domain. The abbreviated forms use fewer items, so always identify the form before interpreting a score.
What does a high BFI-2 Negative Emotionality score mean?
It means the respondent endorsed more of the personality tendencies represented by Anxiety, Depression, and Emotional Volatility after proper scoring. Whether the result is statistically high requires a defined reference distribution; it is not a psychiatric cutoff.
What score is considered high Negative Emotionality?
There is no universal raw-score cutoff. A high label should be tied to the exact form, scoring method, normative or comparison sample, and population.
Does a high Negative Emotionality score mean depression or anxiety?
No. Those words are also names of BFI-2 personality facets, but the inventory does not diagnose anxiety disorders or depressive disorders. Clinical assessment uses condition-specific symptoms, time frames, impairment, history, and differential diagnosis.
Is low Negative Emotionality the same as emotional stability?
At the broad Big Five level, low Negative Emotionality corresponds closely to the emotionally stable pole. Exact score reversal still depends on the instrument and scoring method.
Can I compare my BFI-2 score with a NEO or IPIP score?
Not by comparing raw numbers. The tests use different items and metrics. Meaningful cross-test comparison needs standardized scores based on appropriate norms or empirical calibration from research that administered both instruments.
Can the BFI-2-S measure Negative Emotionality facets?
The 30-item BFI-2-S can support facet-level research in sufficiently large samples, but facet scores are less precise than in the full form. The 15-item BFI-2-XS should be used for broad domains rather than facet assessment.
Can BFI-2 Negative Emotionality change over time?
Personality scores show both stability and change across the lifespan, and observed scores can also fluctuate because of state influences and measurement error. A change in one BFI-2 score should therefore be interpreted with attention to retest interval, reliability, context, and whether the change exceeds expected measurement variability.
Is BFI-2 Negative Emotionality a clinical test?
It is a personality assessment instrument used extensively in research. It can be part of a broader psychological assessment, but its Negative Emotionality score is not a clinical diagnosis, symptom screen, or treatment recommendation.
Related Articles
Neuroticism: What It Is in the Big Five Personality Model — the broad modern personality construct that BFI-2 Negative Emotionality is designed to measure.
Neuroticism Facets: Anxiety, Anger, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, and Vulnerability — a six-facet model that shows why facet structures cannot be transferred automatically between instruments.
Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability: Two Ends of the Same Big Five Dimension? — how the high and low poles of the dimension are labeled and interpreted.
High vs Low Neuroticism: What the Difference Means — a broader trait-level explanation of high and low standing without test-specific cutoffs.
References
Denissen, J. J. A., Geenen, R., Soto, C. J., John, O. P., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2020). The Big Five Inventory-2: Replication of psychometric properties in a Dutch adaptation and first evidence for the discriminant predictive validity of the facet scales. Journal of Personality Assessment, 102, 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2018.1539004
Føllesdal, H., & Soto, C. J. (2022). The Norwegian Adaptation of the Big Five Inventory-2. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 858920. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.858920
Gallardo-Pujol, D., Rouco, V., Cortijos-Bernabeu, A., Oceja, L., Soto, C. J., & John, O. P. (2022). Factor structure, gender invariance, measurement properties, and short forms of the Spanish adaptation of the Big Five Inventory-2. Psychological Test Adaptation and Development, 3(1), 44–69. https://doi.org/10.1027/2698-1866/a000020
Ruchensky, J. R., Edens, J. F., & Donnellan, M. B. (2025). Development of an Inconsistent Responding Scale for the Big Five Inventory-2. Journal of Personality Assessment, 107(3), 384–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2024.2411557
Soto, C. J., & John, O. P. (2017). Short and extra-short forms of the Big Five Inventory-2: The BFI-2-S and BFI-2-XS. Journal of Research in Personality, 68, 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.02.004
Soto, C. J., & John, O. P. (2017). The next Big Five Inventory (BFI-2): Developing and assessing a hierarchical model with 15 facets to enhance bandwidth, fidelity, and predictive power. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 117–143. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000096
Yoshino, S., Shimotsukasa, T., Oshio, A., Hashimoto, Y., Ueno, Y., Mieda, T., Migiwa, I., Sato, T., Kawamoto, S., Soto, C. J., & John, O. P. (2022). A validation of the Japanese adaptation of the Big Five Inventory-2. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 924351. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.924351